Abstract
The filamentous fungi have dynamic and variable hyphal structures within which cytoplasm can be moved, synthesized, and degraded, in response to changes in environmental conditions, resource availability, and resource distribution. Their study has gone through several phases. In the first phase, direct observation was emphasized without undue concern for interior structures or in the presence of cytoplasm. By the mid-1970s, single biochemical proxies (ergosterol, marker fatty acids, chitin derivatives, etc.) were being used increasingly. The use of these surrogate single measurements continues, in spite of their inability to provide information on the physical structure of the filamentous fungi. Molecular approaches also are being used, primarily through the use of bulk nucleic acid extraction and cloning. Because the sources of the nucleic acids used in such studies usually are not known, taxonomic and phylogenetic information derived by this approach cannot be linked to specific fungal structures. Recently, a greater emphasis has been placed on assessing physical aspects of indeterminate fungal growth, involving the assessment of cytoplasm-filled and evacuated (empty) hyphae. Both of these parameters are important for describing filamentous fungal growth and function. The use of phase contrast microscopy and varied general stains, as well as fluorogenic substrates with observation by epifluorescence microscopy, has made it possible to provide estimates of cytoplasm-filled hyphal lengths. Using this approach, it has been possible to evaluate the responses of the indeterminate fungal community to changes in environmental conditions, including soil management. It is now possible to obtain molecular information from individual bacteria and fungal structures (hyphae, spores, fruiting bodies) recovered from environments, making it possible to link individual fungal structures with their taxonomic and phylogenetic information. In addition, this information can be considered in the context of the indeterminate filamentous fungal lifestyle, involving the dynamics of resource allocation to hyphal structural development and synthesis of cytoplasm. Use of this approach should make it possible to gain a greater appreciation of the indeterminate filamentous fungal lifestyle, particularly in the context of microbial ecology.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
K Alef (1993) ArticleTitleBestimmung mikrobieller Biomasse im Boden: Eine kritische Betrachtung. Z Pflanzenernähr Bodenk 156 109–114 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXkt1Ohtbg%3D
JB Anderson LM Kohn (1998) ArticleTitleGenotyping, gene genealogies and genomics bring fungal population genetics above ground. TREE 13 444–448 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01462-1
JPE Anderson KH Domsch (1973) ArticleTitleQuantification of bacterial and fungal contributions to soil respiration. Arch Mikrobiol 93 113–1271 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2cXht1CisA%3D%3D
JR Anderson . Westmoreland (1971) ArticleTitleDirect counts of soil organisms using a fluorescent brightener and a europium chelate. Soil Biol Biochem 3 85–87 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(71)90033-2
E Bääth (1988) ArticleTitleAutoradiographic determination of metabolically-active fungal hyphae in forest soil. Soil Biol Biochem 20 123–125 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(88)90138-1
E Bääth B Söderström (1980) ArticleTitleComparisons of the agar-film and membrane-filter methods for the estimation of hyphal lengths in soil, with particular reference to the effect of magnification. Soil Biol Biochem 12 385–387 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(80)90014-0
RD Bardgett RD Lovell PJ Hobbs SC Jarvis (1999) ArticleTitleSeasonal changes in soil microbial communities along a fertility gradient of temperate grasslands. Soil Biol Biochem 31 1021–1030 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00016-4 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjsFCnu7w%3D
RD Bardgett E McAlister (1999) ArticleTitleThe measurement of soil fungal:bacterial biomass ratios as an indicator of ecosystem self-regulation in temperate meadow grasslands. Biol Fertil Soils 29 282–290 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s003740050554
MH Beare BR Pohlad DH Wright DC Coleman (1993) ArticleTitleResidue placement and fungicide effects on fungal communities in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 57 392–399 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXltlOntA%3D%3D
MP Berg JP Kniese HA Verhoef (1998) ArticleTitleDynamics and stratification of bacteria and fungi in the organic layers of a Scots pine forest soil. Biol Fertil Soils 26 313–322 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s003740050382
WH Bingle EA Paul (1985) ArticleTitleA method for separating fungal hyphae from soil. Can J Microbiol 32 62–66
CL Boddington EE Bassett I Jakobson JC Dodd (1999) ArticleTitleComparison of techniques for the extraction and quantification of extra-radical mycelium of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soils. Soil Biol Biochem 31 482 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0038-0717(98)00145-X
J Borneman PW Skroch KM O’Sullivan JA Palus NG Rumhanek JL Jansen J Nienhaus EW Triplett (1996) ArticleTitleMolecular microbial diversity of an agricultural soil in Wisconsin. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 1935–1943 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XjtlGgsr0%3D Occurrence Handle8787391
TD Brock (1987) The study of microorganisms in situ: progress and problems. M Fletcher TRG Gray JG Jones (Eds) Ecology of Microbial Communities. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK 1–17
L Brussaard VM Behan-Pelletier DE Bignell VK Brown W Didden P Folgarait C Fragoso DW Freckman VV Gupta T Hattori DL Hawksworth C Klopatek P Lavelle DW Malloch J Rusek B Söderström JM Tiedje RA Virginia (1997) ArticleTitleBiodiversity and ecosystem functioning in soil. Ambio 26 563–570
MJ Carlisle (1995) The success of the hypha and mycelium. NAR Gow GM Gadd (Eds) The Growing Fungus. Chapman & Hall London 2–19
MH Chantigny DA Angers D Prévost L-P Vézina F-P Chalifour (1997) ArticleTitleSoil aggregation and fungal and bacterial biomass under annual and perennial cropping systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 61 292–267
MK Chelius EW Triplett (1999) ArticleTitleRapid detection of arbuscular mycorrhizae in roots and soil of an intensively managed turfgrass system by PCR amplification of small subunit rRNA. Mycorrhiza 9 61–64 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s005720050264
M Christensen (1989) ArticleTitleA view of fungal ecology. Mycologia 81 1–12
VP Claassen RJ Zasoski BM Tyler (1996) ArticleTitleA method for direct soil extraction and PCR amplification of endomycorrhizal fungal DNA. Mycorrhiza 6 447–450 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s005720050145 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXkvVamsw%3D%3D
JB Cliff DJ Gaspar PJ Bottomley DD Myrold (2002) ArticleTitleExploration of inorganic C and N assimilation by soil microbes with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 4067–4073 Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.68.8.4067-4073.2002 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XmtVejs7k%3D Occurrence Handle12147508
Conn HJ (1918) The microscopic study of bacteria and fungi in soil. NY Agr Expt Sta, Tech Bull no 64. Jan 1918. [cited in 116, p. 451]
HJ Conn (1922) ArticleTitleMicroscopic method for demonstrating fungi and actinomycetes in soil. Soil Sci 14 149–152
TJ Daniell R Husband AH Fitter JPW Young (2001) ArticleTitleMolecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing arable crops. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 36 203–209 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0168-6496(01)00134-9 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXltVeis7Y%3D Occurrence Handle11451525
FA Davidson (1998) ArticleTitleModelling the qualitative response of fungal mycelia to heterogeneous environments. J Theoretical Biol 195 281 Occurrence Handle10.1006/jtbi.1998.0739
JW Deacon (1997) Modern Mycology. Blackwell Scientific London 303
BP Degens GP Sparling LK Abbott (1996) ArticleTitleIncreasing the length of hyphae in a sandy soil increases the amount of water-stable aggregates. Appl Soil Ecol 3 149–159 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0929-1393(95)00074-7
IA Dickie B Up RT Koide (2002) ArticleTitleVertical niche differentiation of ectomycorrhizal hyphae in soil as shown by T-RFLP analysis. New Phytol 156 527–535 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00535.x Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xpslemt7g%3D
KH Domsch TH Beck JPE Anderson B Söderström D Parkinson G Trolldenier (1979) ArticleTitleA comparison of methods for soil microbial population and biomass studies. Zeits Pflanzenernähr Bodenk 142 520–533 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE1MXkvFShsbo%3D
A Ekblad H Wallander T Näsholm (1998) ArticleTitleChitin and ergosterol combined to measure total and living fungal biomass in ectomyorrhizas. New Phytol 138 143–149 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00891.x Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXhtlOhuro%3D
J Eren D Pramer (1966) ArticleTitleApplication of immunofluorescent staining to studies of the ecology of soil microorganisms. Soil Sci 101 39–45
J Eren D Pramer (1968) ArticleTitleUse of a fluorescent brightener as aid to studies of fungistasis and nematophagous fungi in soil. Phytopathology 58 644–646
T Ezawa SE Smith FA Smith (2001) ArticleTitleDifferentiation of polyphosphate metabolism between the extra- and intraradical hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. New Phytol 149 555–563 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00040.x Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXis1ans7Y%3D
JC Frankland (1974) ArticleTitleImportance of phase-contrast microscopy for estimation of total fungal biomass by the agar-film technique. Soil Biol Biochem 6 409–410 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(74)90051-0
JC Frankland (1975) ArticleTitleEstimation of live fungal biomass. Soil Biol Biochem 7 339–340 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(75)90080-2
JC Frankland (1990) ArticleTitleEcological methods of observing and quantifying soil fungi. Trans Mycol Soc Japan 31 89–101
JC Frankland J Dighton L Boddy (1990) Methods for studying fungi in soil and forest litter. R Gigorova JR Norris (Eds) Methods in Microbiology, Vol. 22 Academic Press London 343–404
J Fröhlich H König (1999) ArticleTitleRapid isolation of single microbial cells from mixed natural and laboratory populations with the aid of a micromanipulator. Syst Appl Microbiol 22 157–249
GW Gooday (1995) ArticleTitleThe dynamics of hyphal growth. Mycol Res 99 385–394
DM Griffin (1972) Ecology of Soil Fungi. Syracuse University Press Syracuse 17
DM Griffin (1985) A comparison of the roles of bacteria and fungi. ER Leadbetter JS Poindexter (Eds) Bacteria in Nature, vol 1. Plenum Press New York 221–255
MB Griffith SA Perry (1994) ArticleTitleFungal biomass and leaf litter processing in streams of different water chemistry. Hydrobiologia 294 51–61 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXktl2jtLg%3D
SK Harney FS Edwards MF Allen (1997) ArticleTitleIdentification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from Artemisia californica using the polymerase chain reaction. Mycologia 89 547–550 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXls1Wlu7w%3D
A Hasebe S Kanazawa Y Takai (1984) ArticleTitleMicrobial biomass in paddy soil. Soil Sci Plant Nutrit 30 175–187
M Hassar G Corkidi E Galindo C Flores L Serrano-Carrenon (2002) ArticleTitleAccurate and rapid viability assessment of Trichoderma harzianum using fluorescence-based digital image analysis. Biotech Bioeng 80 677–684 Occurrence Handle10.1002/bit.10423
J Hassink G Lebbink JA vanVeen (2001) ArticleTitleMicrobial biomass and activity of a reclaimed-polder soil under a conventional or a reduced-input farming system. Soil Biol Biochem 23 507–513 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(91)90107-U
IB Heath (2001) Bridging the divide: cytoskeleton-plasma membrane-cell wall interactions in growth and development. RJ Howard NAR Gow (Eds) The Mycota. VIII. Biology of the Fungal Cell. Springer-Verlag Berlin 201–223
IB Heath G Steinberg (1999) ArticleTitleMechanisms of hyphal tip growth tube dwelling amoebae revisited. Fungal Genet Biol 28 70–93 Occurrence Handle10.1006/fgbi.1999.1168
PR Hirsch (1972) ArticleTitleNeue Methoden zur Beobachtung und Isolierung ungewöhnlicher oder wenig bekannter Wasserbakterien. Zeitsch Allg Mikrobiol 12 203–218 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:CSyD3cjns1w%3D
EA Holland DC Coleman (1987) ArticleTitleLitter placement effects on microbial and organic matter dynamics in an agroecosystem. Ecology 68 425–433
ER Ingham DC Coleman (1984) ArticleTitleEffects of streptomycin, cycloheximide, fungizone, captan, carbofurane, cygon and PCNB on soil microorganisms. Microb Ecol 10 345–358 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXnsFGqsQ%3D%3D
ER Ingham DA Klein (1982) ArticleTitleRelationship between fluorescein diacetate-stained hyphae and oxygen utilization, glucose utilization, and biomass of submerged fungal batch cultures. Appl Environ Microbiol 44 363–370 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL38Xlt1eltrc%3D Occurrence Handle7125653
ER Ingham DA Klein (1984) ArticleTitleSoil fungi: relationships between hyphal activity and staining with fluorescein diacetate. Soil Biol Biochem 16 273–278 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(84)90014-2 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2cXls1Krt7o%3D
AG Jarstfer DM Sylvia (2002) Isolation, culture, and detection of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. CJ Hurst RL Crawford GR Knudsen MJ McInerney LD Stetzenbach (Eds) Manual of Environmental Microbiology. ASM Press Washington, DC 535–542
DS Jenkinson JN Ladd (1981) Microbial biomass in soil: measurement and turnover. EA Paul JN Ladd (Eds) Soil Biochemistry. Marcel Dekker New York 415–471
KI Johnstone (1969) ArticleTitleThe isolation and cultivation of single organisms. Methods Microbiol 1 455–471
PCT Jones JE Mollison (1948) ArticleTitleA technique for the quantitative estimation of soil microorganisms. J Gen Microbiol 2 54–69 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaH1cXjtVCntA%3D%3D
A Kjøller S Struwe (1982) ArticleTitleMicrofungi in ecosystems: fungal occurrence and activity in litter and soil. Oikos 39 391–422
DA Klein BA Frederick EF Redente (1989) ArticleTitleFertilizer effects on microbial communities and organic matter in the rhizosphere of Sitanion hystrix and Agropyron smithii. Arid Soil Res Rehab 3 397–404
DA Klein T McLendon MW Paschke EF Redente (1995) ArticleTitleSaprophytic fungal–bacterial growth pattern variations in successional communities of a semi-arid steppe ecosystem. Biol Fertil Soils 19 253–256
DA Klein MW Paschke (2000) ArticleTitleA soil microbial community structural-functional index: the microscopy-based Total/Active/Active/Fungal Bacterial (TA/AFB) biovolumes ratio. Appl Soil Ecol 14 257–278 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0929-1393(00)00061-5
DA Klein MW Paschke EF Redente (1998) ArticleTitleAssessment of fungal–bacterial development in a successional shortgrass steppe by direct integration of chloroform-fumigation extraction (FE) and microscopically derived data. Soil Biol Biochem 30 573–581 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0038-0717(97)00171-5 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXjtlyqt7g%3D
JL Kough RG Linderman (1986) ArticleTitleMonitoring extra-matrical hyphae of a vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus with an immunofluorescence assay and the soil aggregation technique. Soil Biol Biochem 18 309–313 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(86)90066-0
WL Kubiëna (1938) Micropedology. Collegiate Press Ames, IA
HK Lee JP Tewari TK Turkington (2001) ArticleTitleA PCR-based assay to detect Rhynchosporium secalis, in barley seed. Plant Dis 85 220–225 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhtVOisLo%3D
L Lekkerkerk H Lundkvist GI Ågren G Ekbohm E Bosatta (1990) ArticleTitleDecomposition of heterogeneous substrates; an experimental investigation of a hypothesis on substrate and microbial properties. Soil Biol Biochem 22 161–167 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(90)90081-A Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXktl2gtLo%3D
Q Lin PC Brookes (1996) ArticleTitleComparison of methods to measure microbial biomass in unamended, ryegrass-amended and fumigated soils. Soil Biol Biochem 28 939 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(96)00058-2
DJ Lodge (1987) ArticleTitleNutrient concentrations, percentage moisture and density of field-collected fungal mycelia. Soil Biol Biochem 19 727–733 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(87)90055-1
DJ Lodge ER Ingham (1991) ArticleTitleA comparison of agar film techniques for estimating fungal biovolumes in litter and soil. Ag Ecosyst Environ 34 131–144 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0167-8809(91)90101-3
F Martin-Laurent L Philoppot S Hallet R Chaussod JC Germon G Soulas G Catroux (2001) ArticleTitleDNA extraction from soils: old bias for new microbial diversity analysis methods. Appl Environ Microbiol 67 2354–2359 Occurrence Handle10.1128/AEM.67.5.2354-2359.2001 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjtlGmsLg%3D Occurrence Handle11319122
TP McGonigle MH Miller DG Evans GL Fairchild JA Swan (1990) ArticleTitleA new method which gives an objective measure of colonization of roots by vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. New Phytol 115 495–496
TP McGonigle MH Miller (1996) ArticleTitleDevelopment of fungi below ground in association with plants growing in disturbed and undisturbed soils. Soil Biol Biochem 28 263–269 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(95)00129-8 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XhsFaqtrw%3D
RA Merckx JK Martin (1987) ArticleTitleExtraction of microbial biomass components from rhizosphere soils. Soil Biol Biochem 19 371–376 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(87)90025-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXlsFegtLs%3D
RH Miller (1990) Soil microbiological inputs for sustainable agricultural systems. CA Edwards R Lal P Madden RH Miller G House (Eds) Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny IA/St. Lucie Press Boca Raton, FL 614–623
M Miller A Palojärvi A Rangger M Reeslev A Kjøller (1998) ArticleTitleThe use of fluorogenic substrates to measure fungal presence in and activity in soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 613–617 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXpsVSqsQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9464399
CE Morris M Bardin O Berge P Fey-Klett N Fromin H Girardin M-H Guinebretière P Lebaron JM Thiéry M Troussellier (2002) ArticleTitleMicrobial biodiversity: approaches to experimental design and hypothesis testing in primary scientific literature from 1975 to 1999. Microb Mol Biol Rev 66 592–616 Occurrence Handle10.1128/MMBR.66.4.592-616.2002
SY Newell RD Fallon JD Miller (1986) Measuring fungal biomass dynamics in standing-dead leaves of a saltmarsh vascular plant. DT Moss (Eds) The Biology of Marine Fungi. Cambridge University Press New York 19–25
SY Newell TL Arsuffi HJ Fallowfield (1988) ArticleTitleFundamental procedures for determining ergosterol content of decaying plant material by liquid chromatography. Appl Environ Microbiol 54 1876–1879 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXkvV2isr8%3D
SY Newell (1992) Estimating fungal biomass and productivity in decomposing litter. GC Carroll DT Wicklow (Eds) The Fungal Community. Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem. Marcel Dekker New York 521–561
SY Newell (2001) ArticleTitleFungal biomass and productivity. Methods Microbiol 30 357–372 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0580-9517(01)30053-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXktl2ks78%3D
DP Nicholas D Parkinson (1967) ArticleTitleA comparison of methods for assessing the amount of fungal mycelium in soil samples. Pedobiologia 7 23–41
LO Nilsson H Wallander (2003) ArticleTitleProduction of external mycelium by ectomycorrhizal fungi in a norway spruce forest was reduced in response to nitrogen fertilization. New Phytol 158 409–416
JM Norton MK Firestone (1991) ArticleTitleMetabolic status of bacteria and fungi in the rhizosphere of ponderosa pine seedlings. Appl Environ Microbiol 57 1161–1167
FCW Olson (1950) ArticleTitleQuantitative estimates of filamentous algae. Trans Am Microscop Soc 69 272–279
S Olsson BS Hansson (1995) ArticleTitleAction potential-like activity found in fungal mycelia is sensitive to stimulation. Naturwissenschaften 82 30–31 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s001140050135 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXktFSisL0%3D
S Olsson (2001) Colonial growth of fungi. RJ Howard NAR Gow (Eds) The Mycota. VIII. Biology of the Fungal Cell. Springer-Verlag Heidelberg 125–141
NR Pace DA Stahl DJ Lane GJ Olsen (1986) ArticleTitleThe analysis of natural microbial populations by ribosomal RNA sequences. Adv Microb Ecol 9 1–55 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL28XltFWmsL8%3D
CE Pankhurst K Ophel-keller BM Doube VVSR Gupta (1996) ArticleTitleBiodiversity of soil microbial communities in agricultural systems. Biodiversity Cons 5 301–393
K Paustian (1985) Influence of fungal growth pattern on decomposition and nitrogen mineralization in a model system. AH Fitter D Atkinson DJ Read MB Usher (Eds) Ecological Interactions in Soil: Plants, Microbes and Animals. Brit Ecol Soc Sp Pub 4. Blackwell Scientific Oxford 159–174
K Paustian J Schnürer (1987) ArticleTitleFungal growth response to carbon and nitrogen limitation: a theoretical model. Soil Biol Biochem 19 613–620 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(87)90107-6 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXlsFWjsro%3D
JI Prosser (1995) Kinetics of filamentous growth and branching. NAR Gow CM Gadd (Eds) The Growing Fungus. Chapman & Hall London 301–318
M Ramsdale ADM Rayner (1997) Ecological genetics. DT Wicklow BE Söderström (Eds) The Mycota IV. Springer-Verlag New York 15–30
AJR Rayner JD Beeching JC Crowe ZR Watkins (1999) Defining individual fungal boundaries. JJ Worrall (Eds) Structure and Dynamics of Fungal Populations. Kluwer Academic Norwell, MA 19–42
ADM Rayner L Boddy (1998) Terrestrial fungal communities. RS Burlage R Atlas D Stahl G Geesey G Sayler (Eds) Techniques in Microbial Ecology. Oxford University Press New York 163–202
ADM Rayner GS Griffith AM Ainsworth (1994) Mycelial interconnectedness. NAR Gow GM Gadd (Eds) The growing fungus. Chapman & Hall London 21–40
CH Robinson PA Wookey (1997) Microbial ecology, decomposition and nutrient cycling. M Marquiss SJ Woodin (Eds) Ecology of Arctic Environments. Spec Pub No 13, Brit Ecol Soc. Blackwell Scientific Oxford 41–63
A Schubert C Marzachi M Mazzitelli MC Cravero P Bonfante-Fasolo (1987) ArticleTitleDevelopment of total and viable extraradical mycelium in the vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus clarum Nicol. & Schenck. New Phytol 107 183–190
LM Seitz HE Mohr R Burroughs DB Sauer (1977) ArticleTitleErgosterol as an indicator of fungal invasion in grains. Cereal Chem 54 1207–1217 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE1cXos1ajsw%3D%3D
JA Shapiro M Dworkin (1997) Bacteria as Multicellular Organisms. Oxford University Press New York
AK Sharma BN Johri (2002) Physiology of nutrient uptake by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. AK Sharma BN Johri (Eds) Arbuscular Mycorrhizae. Interactions in Plants, Rhizosphere and Soils. Science Publishers Enfield, NH 279–308
WV Sigler S Crivii J Zeyer (2002) ArticleTitleBacterial succession in glacial forefield soils characterized by community structure, activity and opportunistic growth dynamics. Microb Ecol 44 306–316 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00248-002-2025-9 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD38jhtFOltg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle12399899
L Simon M Lalonde TD Bruns (1992) ArticleTitleSpecific amplification of 18S fungal ribosomal genes from vesicular–arbuscular endomycorrhizal fungi colonizing roots. Appl Environ Microbiol 58 291–295 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK38Xkt1Wgsb0%3D Occurrence Handle1339260
E Smit P Leeflang B Glandorf JD vanElsas K Wernars (1999) ArticleTitleAnalysis of fungal diversity in the wheat rhizosphere by sequencing of cloned PCR-amplified genes encoding 18S rRNA and temperature gradient electrophoresis. Appl Environ Microbiol 65 2614–2621 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjs12gt7w%3D Occurrence Handle10347051
JL Smith EA Paul (1990) The significance of soil microbial biomass estimations. JM Bollag G Stotzky (Eds) Soil Biochemistry, 6th ed. Marcel Dekker New York 357–396
BE Söderström (1977) ArticleTitleVital staining of fungi in pure cultures and in soil with fluorescein diacetate. Soil Biol Biochem 9 59–63 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(77)90061-X
BE Söderström (1979) ArticleTitleSome problems in assessing the fluorescein diacetate-active fungal biomass in the soil. Soil Biol Biochem 11 147–148 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(79)90092-0
JT Staley A-L Reysenbach (2001) Biodiversity of Microbial Life. Wiley-Liss, Inc New York
K Suberkropp TL Arsuffi JPE Anderson (1974) ArticleTitleComparison of degradative ability, enzymatic activity, and palatability of aquatic hyphomycetes grown on leaf litter. Appl Environ Microbiol 46 237–244
K Suberkropp MJ Klug (1974) ArticleTitleDecomposition of deciduous leaf litter in a woodland stream. I. A scanning electron microscopic study. Microb Ecol 1 96–103
DM Sylvia (1992) ArticleTitleQuantification of external hyphae of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Methods Microbiol 24 53–65
MJ Taylor JU Ponika DA Sherris EB Kern TA Gaffey G Kephart H Kita (2002) ArticleTitleDetection of fungal organisms in eocinophilic mucin using a fluorescein-labeled chitin-specific binding protein. Otolaryn-Head Neck Surg 127 377–383 Occurrence Handle10.1067/mhn.2002.128896
G Thorne (1997) The fungi in soil. JD vanElsas JT Trevors EMH Wellington (Eds) Modern Soil Microbiology. Marcel Dekker New York 63–127
IC Tommerup (1992) ArticleTitleMethods for the study of the population biology of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Methods Microbiol 24 23–51
KK Treseder MF Allen (2000) ArticleTitleBlack boxes and missing sinks: fungi in global change research. Mycol Res 104 1282–1283 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0953756200229778
SM Turner EI Newman (1984) ArticleTitleFungal abundance on Lolium perenne roots: influence of nitrogen and phosphorous. Trans Brit Mycol Soc 82 315–322 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2cXktVKjtrg%3D
S Visser CL Griffiths D Parkinson (1983) ArticleTitleEffects of surface mining on the microbiology of a prairie site in Alberta, Canada. Can J Soil Sci 63 177–189
M Vosatka (2001) ArticleTitleA future role for the use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil remediation: a chance for small-medium enterprises? Minerva Biotechnologica 13 69–72
SA Waksman (1916) ArticleTitleDo fungi live and produce mycelium in the soil? Science NS 44 320–322
SA Waksman (1922) ArticleTitleThe growth of fungi in the soil. Soil Sci 14 153–157 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaB3sXhtVKhtA%3D%3D
JH Warcup (1955) ArticleTitleOn the origin of colonies of fungi developing on soil dilution plates. Trans Brit Mycol Soc 38 298–301
JH Warcup (1957) ArticleTitleStudies on the occurrence and activity of fungi in a wheat-field soil. Trans Brit Mycol Soc 40 237–262
JH Warcup (1967) Fungi in soil. A Burges F Raw (Eds) Soil Biology. Academic Press New York 51–110
AW West WD Grant GP Sparling (1987) ArticleTitleUse of ergosterol, diaminopimelic acid and glucosamine contents of soils to monitor changes in microbial populations. Soil Biol Biochem 19 607–612 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0038-0717(87)90106-4 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXlsFegur0%3D
DC White DC Davis JS Nickels JC King RJ Bobbie (1979) ArticleTitleDetermination of the sedimentary microbial biomass by extractable lipid phosphate. Oecologia 40 51–62
S Winogradsky (1949) Microbiologie du Sol. Masson et Cie Paris 428–440
J Worrall (1999) Brief introduction to fungi. JJ Worrall (Eds) Structure and Dynamics of Fungal Populations. Kluwer Academic Boston 1–18
S Wright JB Morton (1989) ArticleTitleDetection of vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus colonization of roots by using a dot-immunoblot assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 55 761–763
JC Zak SC Rabatin (1997) Organization and description of fungal communities. DT Wicklow BE Söderström (Eds) The Mycota IV. Springer-Verlag New York 33–46
JC Zak S Visser (1996) ArticleTitleAn appraisal of soil fungal biodiversity: the crossroads between taxonomic and functional biodiversity. Biodiversity Cons 5 169–183
S Zeppa L Vallorani L Potenza F Bernardini B Pieretti M Guescini G Giomaro V Stocchi (2000) ArticleTitleEstimation of fungal biomass and transcript levels in Tilia platyphyllos–Tuber borchii ectomycorrhizae. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 188 119–124 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0378-1097(00)00223-8 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXksFGisL8%3D
Q Zhang JC Zak (1998) ArticleTitlePotential physiological activities of fungi and bacteria in relation to plant litter decomposition along a gap size gradient in a natural subtropical forest. Microb Ecol 35 172–179 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002489900071 Occurrence Handle9541553
ZH Zhou M Miwa Y Matsuda T Hogetsu (2001) ArticleTitleSpatial distribution of the subterranean mycelia and ectomycorrhizae of Suillus grevillei genets. J Plant Res 114 179–185
G Zhou WZ Whong T Ong B Chen (2000) ArticleTitleDevelopment of a fungus-specific PCR assay for detecting low-level fungi in an indoor environment. Mol Cell Probes 14 339–348 Occurrence Handle10.1006/mcpr.2000.0324 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXot1Klsbg%3D Occurrence Handle11090263
Acknowledgements
This study was carried out with support from the USDA-NRICCP under project 93-37101-8601, and by USDOD-SERDP project CS-1145. The assistance of Darci Burchers with laboratory analyses, of Mark Lombard and Paul Swartzinski with field sampling, and of Katy Carl with the rendering of Fig. 1 is deeply appreciated. The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Klein, D., Paschke, M. Filamentous Fungi: the Indeterminate Lifestyle and Microbial Ecology . Microb Ecol 47, 224–235 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-003-1037-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-003-1037-4