Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reading and spelling disorders: Clinical features and causes

  • Published:
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Developmental dyslexia (specific reading and specific spelling disorder) is thought to stem from specific features in cognitive processing strongly related to biological maturation of the central nervous system which interact with non-biological learning conditions. The specific learning disorder should not be accounted for by mental age, gross neurological deficits, emotional disturbances or inadequate schooling. As a clinical guideline, the child’s level in reading and spelling must be significantly below that expected for the population of children of the same mental age. The persistence rate is high and dyslexia is often associated with psychiatric problems. The etiology is not known. From the biological point of view, dyslexia is supposed to have a neurological basis. Neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and neuropsychological correlates have been studied by means of autopsy, brain imaging, neurophysiological and neuropsychological methods. There is good evidence that dyslexia is determined by heritable cognitive components of reading and spelling processing. Experimental research focuses on characteristics of brain structure and cognitive skills related to the central nervous systems of auditory-phonological and visual information processing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association (1994) DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. IVth edn. American Psychiatric Press. Washington D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Barnard N, Crewther SG, Crewther DP (1998) Development of a magnocellular function in good and poor primary school-age readers. Optometry and Vision Science 75: 62–68

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Bishop DVM (1989) Unstable vergence control and dyslexia. A critique. British Journal of Ophthalmology 73:223–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Bouma H, Legein CHP (1980) Dyslexia: A specific recoding deficit? An analysis of response latencies for letters and words in dyslectics and in average readers. Neuropsychologia 18:285–298

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Brandeis D, Vitacco D, Steinhausen HC (1994) Mapping brain electric micro-states in dyslexic children during reading. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 56:239–247

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Brecelj J, Strucl M, Raic V (1996) Do visual neurophysiological tests reflect magnocellular deficit in dyslexic children? Pflügers Archiv 431 Suppl. R299-R300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Brown B, Haegerstrom-Portnoy G, Adams AJ, Yingling CHD, Galin D, Herron J, Marcus M (1983) Predictive eye movements do not discriminate between dyslexic and control children. Neuropsychologia 21: 121–128

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Bryant PE, Goswami U (1990) Comparisons between backward and normal readers — a risky business. British Psychological Society Education Review 14:3–29

    Google Scholar 

  9. Cardon LR, Smith SD, Fulker DW, Kimberling WJ, Pennington BF, De Fries JC (1994) Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6. Science 266: 276–279

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. DeFries JC, Fulker DW, LaBuda MC (1987) Evidence for a genetic etiology in reading disability of twins. Nature 329:537–539

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. DeFries JC, Stevenson J, Gillis, JJ, Wadsworth SJ (1991) Genetic etiology of spelling deficits in the colorado and London twin studies of reading disability. Read Writ Interdisc J 3:271–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Demb JB, Boynton GM, Best M, Heeger DJ (1998) Psychophysical evidence for a magnocellular pathway deficit in dyslexia. Vision Research 38:1555–1559

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Duara R, Kushch A, Gross-Glenn K, Barker WW, Jallad B, Pascal S, Loewenstein DA, Sheldon J, Rabin M, Levin B, Lubs H (1991) Neuroanatomic differences between dyslexic and normal readers on magnetic resonance imaging scans. Archives of Neurology 48:410–416

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Eden GF, Van Meter JW, Rumsey JM, Maisog JM, Woods RP, Zeffiro TA (1996) Abnormal processing of visual motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature 382:66–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Esser G (1991) Was wird aus Kindern mit Teilleistungsschwächen? Enke, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  16. Esser G, Schmidt M (1994) Children with specific reading retardation — early determinants and long-term outcome. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 56: 229–237

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Farmer ME, Klein RM (1995) The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia. A review Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2: 460–493

    Google Scholar 

  18. Field LL, Kaplan BJ (1998) Absence of linkage of phonological coding dyslexia to chromosome 6p23-p21.3 in a large family data set. Am J Hum Genet 63:1448–1456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Fischer B, Bisealdi M, Hartnegg K (1998) Die Bedeutung der Blicksteuerung bei der Lese-Rechtschreibschwäche. Sprache, Stimme, Gehör 22:18–24

    Google Scholar 

  20. Fisher SE, Marlow AJ, Lamb J, Maestrini E, Williams DF, Richardson AJ, Weeks DE, Stein JF, Monaco AP (1999) A quantitative-trait locus on chromosome 6p influences different aspects of developmental dyslexia. Am J Hum Genet 64:146–156

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Flowers DL, Wood, FB, Naylor CE (1991) Regional cerebral blood flow correlates of language processes in reading disability. Archives of Neurology 48:637–643

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Frith C, Frith U (1996) A biological marker for dyslexia. Nature 382: 19–20

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Froster U, Schulte-Körne G, Hebebrand H, Remschmidt H (1993) Cosegregation of balanced translocation with retarded speech development and dyslexia. Lancet 342: 178–179

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Galaburda AM, Sherman GF, Rosen GD, Aboitiz F, Geschwind N (1985) Developmental dyslexia: Four consecutive patients with cortical anomalies. Annual Neurology 18:222–233

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Galaburda AM (1989) Ordinary and extraordinary brain development: Anatomical variation in developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia 39:67–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Galaburda A, Livingstone M (1993) Evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. In: Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System: Special Reference to Dyslexia and Dysphasia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York 682:70–82

    Google Scholar 

  27. Gayan J, Smith SD, Cherny SS, Cardon LR, Fulker DW, Brower M, Olson RK, Pennington BF, De Fries JC (1999) Quantitative-trait locus for specific language and reading deficits on chromosome 6p. Am J Hum Genet 64:157–164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Geschwind N (1974) The development of the brain and the evolution of language. In: Geschwind, N (ed) Selected Papers on Language and the Brain. Reidel, Dordrecht pp 89–104

    Google Scholar 

  29. Geschwind N, Galaburda A (1985) Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations and pathology. Part I. A hypothesis and program for research. Archives of Neurology 42:428–459

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Geyger G, Lettvin JY (1987) Peripheral vision in person with dyslexia. The New England Journal of Medicine 31:1238–1243

    Google Scholar 

  31. Grigorenko EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Hart LA, Speed WC, Shuster A, Pauls DL (1997) Suspectibility loci for distinct components of developmental dyslexia on chromosome 6 and 15. American Journal of Human Genetics 60:27–39

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Grimm T, Noethen M, Schulte-Körne G (1998) Zur Genetik der Legasthenie. Sprache, Stimme, Gehör 22:8–12

    Google Scholar 

  33. Gross-Glenn K, Duara, R, Barker W., Loewenstein D, Chang J, Yoshii F, Apicella A, Pascal S, Boother T, Sevush S, Jallad B, Novoa L, Lubs H (1991) Positron emission tomographic studies during serial word-reading by normal and dyslexic adults. J Clin and Experimental Neuropsychology 13:531–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Haffner J, Zerahn-Harting C, Pfüller U, Parzer P, Strehlow U, Resch F (1998) Auswirkungen und Bedeutung spezifischer Rechtschreibprobleme bei jungen Erwachsenen — empirische Befunde in einer epidemiologischen Stichprobe. Zeitschrift für Kinderund Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 26:124–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Hennighausen K; Remschmidt H, Warnke A (1994) Visually evoked potentials in boys with developmental dyslexia. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 3:72–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Hennighausen K, Warnke A, Remschmidt H (1998) Electrophysiological correlates of semantic discrimination processes in dyslexic children. 14th International Congress of the International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Professions, Aug. 2–6, 98, Stockholm

  37. Hinshelwood J (1904) A case of congenital word-blindness. British Medical Journal 2:1303–1304

    Google Scholar 

  38. Hinshelwood J (1917) Congenital Word-Blindness. Lewis, London

    Google Scholar 

  39. Horwitz B, Rumsey JM, Donohue BC (1998) Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95:8939–8944

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hynd GW, Semrúd-Cukeman M, Lorys AR, Novey ES, Euopulos D (1990): Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity. Archives of Neurology 47:9191–926

    Google Scholar 

  41. Johannes S, Kussmaul CL, Münte Th F, Magnun, G (1996) Developmental dyslexia: Passive visual stimulation provides no evidence for a magnocellular processing defect. Neuropsychologia 34:1123–1127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Klicpera C, Gasteiger-Klicpera B (1993) Lesen und Schreiben — Entwicklung und Schwierigkeiten: die Wiener Längsschnittuntersuchungen über die Entwicklung, den Verlauf und die Ursachen von Lese- und Schreibschwierigkeiten in der Pflichtschulzeit. Huber, Bern

    Google Scholar 

  43. Kubová Z, Kuba M, Peregrin J, Nováková V (1995) Visual evoked potential evidence for magnocellular system deficti in dyslexia. Physiological Research 44:87–89

    Google Scholar 

  44. Küspert P (1998) Phonologische Bewußtheit und Schriftspracherwerb: zu den Effekten vorschulischer Förderung der phonologischen Bewußtheit auf den Erwerb des Lesens und Rechtschreibens. Lang, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  45. Kushch A, Gross-Glenn K, Jallad B (1993) Temporal lobe surface area measurements on MRT in normal and dyslexic readers. Neuropsychologia 31:811–821

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Landerl K, Wimmer H, Frith U (1997) The impact of orthographic consistency on dyslexia. A German-English comparison. Cognition 63, 315–334

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Leonhard CM, Voeller KKS, Lombardino LJ, Morris MK, Hynd GW, Alexander AW, Andersen HG, Garofalakis M, Honcyman, JC, Mao J, Agee F, Staab EV (1993) Anomalous cerebral structure in dyslexia revealed with magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of Neurology 50:461–469

    Google Scholar 

  48. Livingstone MS, Rosen CD, Dislane FW, Galaburda AM (1991) Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:7943–7947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Lovegrove W (1993) Weakness in the transient visual system: a causal factor in dyslexia. In: Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal information processing in the nervous system: Special reference to dyslexia and dysphasia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York 682:70–82

  50. Lovegrove W, Williams MC (1993) Visual temporal processing deficits in specific reading disability. In: Willows DM, Kruk RS, Corcos E (eds) Visual processes in reading and reading disabilities. Erlbaum L, Hillsdale, New York

    Google Scholar 

  51. Martos FJ, Vila J (1990) Difference in eye movements control among dyslexic, retarded readers and normal readers in the Spanish population. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 2:175–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Martos FJ, Marmolejo A (1993) Visible persistence and Dyslexia. In: Tallal P, Galaburda M, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, New York, 682:383–386

  53. Mattis S, French JH, Rapin I (1975) Dyslexia in children and young adults: Three independent neuropsychological syndromes. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 17: 150–163

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Maugham B, Gray G, Rutter M (1985) Reading retardation and antisocial behaviour: A follow-up into employment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 26:741–758

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Maughan B, Yule W (1995) Reading and other learning disabilities. In: Rutter M, Taylor E, Hersov L (eds) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 647–665

    Google Scholar 

  56. Maugham B (1995) Annotation: Long-term outcomes of developmental reading problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 36: 357–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Mayringer H, Wimmer H, Landerl K (1998) Die Vorhersage früher Lese- und Rechtschreibschwierigkeiten: Phonologische Schwächen als Prädiktoren. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie 2:57–69

    Google Scholar 

  58. McGee R, Williams S, Share DL, Anderson J, Silva PA (1986) The relationsship between specific reading retardation, general reading backwardness and behavioural problems in a large sample of Dunedin boys: A longitudinal study from five to eleven years. J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. 27:597–610

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. McGee R, Share D, Moffitt TE, Williams S, Silva PA (1988) Reading disability, behaviour problems and juvenile delinquency. In: Saklofske DH, Eysenck SBG (eds) Individual Differences in Children and Adolescents: International perspectiveness. Holder & Stoughton, London, pp 150–172

    Google Scholar 

  60. Morgan WP (1896) A case of congenital wordblindness. British Medical Journal 2:13–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Morton J, Frith U (1995) A structural approach to developmental psychopathology. In: Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ (eds) Developmental Psychopathology, Vol 1. Wiley, New York, pp 357–390

    Google Scholar 

  62. Naylor CE, Felton RH, Wood FB (1990) Adult outcome in developmental dyslexia. In Pavlidis GT (ed) Perspectives on Dyslexia. Vol 2. Wiley, London, pp 215–229

    Google Scholar 

  63. Njiokiktjien C (1994) Dyslexia: a neuroscientific puzzle. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 56:157–167

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Olson RK, Wise B, Conners F, Rack J (1990) Organization, heritability, and remediation of component word recognition and language skills in disabled readers. In: Carr T H, Levy B A (eds) Reading and its development: component skills approaches. Academic Press, New York, pp 261–322

    Google Scholar 

  65. Olson RK, Porsberg H, Wise B (1994) Genes, environment and the development of orthographic skills. In: Berninger VW (ed) The Varieties of Orthographic Knowledge 1: Theoretical and Developmental Issues. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 27–71

    Google Scholar 

  66. Orton ST (1928) Specific reading disability — strephosymbolia. Journal of the American Medical Association 90:1095–1099

    Google Scholar 

  67. Paulesu E, Frith U, Snowling M, Gallagher A, Morton J, Frakkowiak R, Frith C (1996) Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome? Brain 119:143–157

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Pavlidis GT (1986) The role of eye movements in the diagnosis of dyslexia. In: Pavlidis GT, Fischer D (eds) Dyslexia. Its Neuropsychology and Treatment. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  69. Pavlidis GT (1990) Perspectives on Dyslexia. Vol. I. Neurology, Neuropsychology and Genetics. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  70. Pennington BF (1991) Overview: introduction to special edition on genetics, neurology and neuropsychology of reading disabilities. Reading and Writing. An Interdisciplinary Journal 3:191–201

    Google Scholar 

  71. Pennington BF, Gilger J, Pauls D, Smith SSA, Smith SD, DeFries JC (1991) Evidence for a major gene transmission of developmental dyslexia. Journal of American Medical Association 18:1527–1534

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Pirozzolo FJ (1979) The neuropsychology of developmental reading disorders. Praeger, New York

    Google Scholar 

  73. Rabin M, Wen L, Hepburn M, Lubs HA, Feldman E, Duara R (1993) Suggestive linkage of developmental dyslexia to chromosome 1p34–p36. Lancet 342:178

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Rae C, Lee MA, Dixon RM, Blamire AM, Thompson CH, Styles P, Talcott J, Richardson AJ, Stein JF (1998) Metabolic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia detected by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The Lancet 351:1849–1852

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Rayner K (1986) Eye movements and the perceptual span: Evidence for dyslexic topology. In: Pavlidis GT, Fisher DF (eds) Dyslexia: Its neuropsychology and treatment. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  76. Remschmidt H, Warnke A (1992) Visual information processing and cerebral activation in dyslexic boys: Quantitative EEG analysis during discrimination reading tasks. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1:42–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Robichon F, Habib M (1998) Abnormal collosal morphology in male adult dyslexics: Relationship to handedness and phonological abilities. Brain and Language 62:127–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Roth E (1999) Prävention von Lese- und Rechtschreibschwierigkeiten: Evaluation einer vorschulischen Förderung der phonologischen Bewußtheit und der Buchstabenkenntnis. Lang, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  79. Rumsey JM, Andreason P, Zametkin AJ King AC, Hamburger T, Aquino A, Hanahan P, Pikus A, Cohen RM (1995) Right frontotemporal activation by tonal memory in dyslexia. Biological Psychiatry 35:171–180

    Google Scholar 

  80. Rumsey JM, Casanova M, Mannheim GB, Patronas N, De Vaughn N, Hamburger SD, Aquino T (1996) Corpus callosum morphology, as measured with MRI, in dyslexic men. Biological Psychiatry 39:769–775

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Rumsey JM, Nace K, Donohue B, Wise D, Maisorg JM, Andreason P (1997) A positron emission tomographic study of impaired word recognition and phonological processing in dyslexic men. Arch. Neurol. 54:562–573

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Rutter M, Tizard J, Whitmore K (eds) (1970) Education, Health and Behaviour. Longham, London

    Google Scholar 

  83. Rutter M, Yule W (1975) The concept of specific reading retardation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 125:181–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Rutter M, Tizard J, Yule W, Graham P, Whitmore K (1976) Isle of Wight studies 1964–1974. Psychological Medicine 6:313–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Schäfer WD (1998) Visuelle Wahrnehmung bei Legasthenie. Sprache, Stimme, Gehör 22:13–16

    Google Scholar 

  86. Schneider W (1993) The early prediction of reading and spelling. European Journal of Psychology of Education 3:199–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Schneider W, Näslund JC (1993) The impact of early metalinguistic competences and memory capacity on reading and spelling in elementary school: Results of the Munich longitudinal study of the genesis of individual competences (LOGIC). European Journal of Psychology of Education 3:273–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Schneider W, Visé M, Reimers P, Blaesser B (1994) Auswirkungen eines Trainings der sprachlichen Bewußtheit auf den Schriftspracherwerb in der Schule. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie 8: 177–188

    Google Scholar 

  89. Schneider W, Küspert P, Roth E, Visé M, Marx H (1997) Short- and long-term effects of training phonological awareness in kindergarten: Evidence from two German studies. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 66:311–340

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Schulte-Körne G, Remschmidt H, Hebebrand J (1993) Zur Genetik der Lese-Rechtschreibschwäche. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie 21:242–252

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Schulte-Körne G, Deimel W, Müller K, Gutenbrunner C, Remschmidt H (1996) Familial aggregation of spelling disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 37: 817–822

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Schulte-Körne G, Deimel W, Bartling J, Remschmidt H (1998) Die Bedeutung der auditiven Wahrnehmung und der phonologischen Bewußtheit für die Lese-Rechtschreibschwäche. Sprache, Stimme, Gehör 22:25–30

    Google Scholar 

  93. Schulte-Körne G, Grimm T, Nöthen MM, Müller-Myhsok B, Cichon S, Vogt IR, Propping P, Remschmidt H (1998) Evidence for linkage of spelling disability to chromosome 15. American Journal of Human Genetics 63:279–282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Schulte-Körne G, Deimel W, Bartling J, Remschmidt H (1998) Auditory processing and dyslexia: Evidence for a specific speech deficit. Neuro-Report 9:337–340

    Google Scholar 

  95. Schultz RT, Cho NK, Staib LH, Kier LE, Fletcher JM (1994) Brain morphology in normal and dyslexic children: The influence of sex and age. Annals of Neurology 35:732–742

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Shankweiler D, Crain S, Katz L, Fowler AE, Liberman AM, Brady SA, Thornton R, Lundquist E, Dreyer I, Fletscher JM, Stuebing KK, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA (1995) Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychological Science 6:149–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Escobar MD (1990) Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: Results of the Connecticut Longitudinal study. Journal of the American Medical association 264:998–1002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Shaywitz SE, Escobar MD, Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Makuch R (1992) Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability. New England Journal of Medicine 326:145–150

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Shaywitz SE (1997) Legasthenie — gestörte Lautverarbeitung. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 68–76

  100. Smith SD, Kimberling WJ, Penington BF, Lubs HA (1983) Specific reading disability: Identification of an inherited form through linkage analysis. Science 219:1345–1347

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Smith SD, Kimberling WJ, Pennington BF (1991) Screening for multiple genes influencing dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 3:285–298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Stanovich KE (1994) Annotation: Does dyslexia exist? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 35: 579–595

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Stein JF, Fowler S (1985) Effect of monocular occlusion on visuomotor perception and reading in dyslexic children. The Lancet 13:69–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Stein J (1993) Dyslexia — impaired temporal information processing? In: Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System: Special Reference to Dyslexia and Dysphasia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York pp 682:83–86

  105. Stephenson S (1907) Six cases of congenital word-blindness affecting three generations of one family. Ophthalmoscope 5:482–484

    Google Scholar 

  106. Stevenson J, Graham P, Fredman G, McLoughlin V (1987) A twin study of genetic influences on reading and spelling ability and disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28:229–247

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Stevenson J (1988) Which aspects of reading ability show a “hump” in their distribution? Applied Cognitive Psychology 2:77–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Stevenson J (1991) Which aspects of processing text mediate genetic effects? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 249–269

  109. Strehlow U, Kluge R, Müller H, Haffner J (1992) Der langfristige Verlauf der Legasthenie über die Schulzeit hinaus. Katamnesen aus einer kinderpsychiatrischen Ambulanz. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie 20:254–265

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Strehlow U (1994) Katamnestic studies on dyslexia. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 56, 3:219–228

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Strehlow U (1998) Der Verlauf der umschriebenen Lese-Rechtschreibschwäche. Sprache, Stimme, Gehör 22:31–33

    Google Scholar 

  112. Suchodoletz von W (1999) 100 Jahre LRS-Forschung — was wissen wirheute? Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 27:199–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Tallal P, Curtiss S (1990) Neurological Basis of Developmental Language Disorders. In: Rothenberger A (ed) Brain and Behavior in Child Psychiatry. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  114. Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (1993) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System. Vol 682. The New York Academy of Sciences, New York

    Google Scholar 

  115. Tallal P, Miller S, Fitch, RH (1993) Neurobiological basis of speech: a case for the preeminence of temporal processing. In: Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System: Special Reference to Dyslexia and Dysphasia. New York, 682:27–47

  116. Valtin r (1972) Empirische Untersuchungen zur Legasthenie. Schroedel, Hannover

    Google Scholar 

  117. Vanni S, Uusitalo MA, Kiesilä P, Hari R (1997) Visual motion activates V5 in dyslexics. Neuro Report 8: 1939–1942

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Vellutino FR (1980) Dyslexia. Theory and Research. The MIT Press. Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  119. Wagner RK, Torgesen JK, Rashotte CA (1994) Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology 30:73–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Wagner RK, Torgesen JK, Rashotte, CA, Hecht SA, Barker TA, Burgess SR, Donahue J, Garon T (1997) Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology 33: 468–479

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Warnke A (1990) Legasthenie und Hirnfunktion. Neuropsychologische Befunde zur visuellen Informationsverarbeitung. Huber, Bern

    Google Scholar 

  122. Warnke A, Remschmidt H (1992) Visual information processing in developmentally dyslexic boys: A neuropsychological study. In: Remschmidt H, Schmidt MH (eds) Developmental Psychopathology. Hogrefe & Huber, Toronto, Bern, Göttingen pp 117–130

    Google Scholar 

  123. Warnke A, Remschmidt H, Hennighausen K (1994) Verbal information processing in dyslexia — data from a follow-up-experiment of neuro-psychological aspects and EEG. Acta Paedopsychiatrica 56, 3:203–208

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Willows DM, Kruk, RS, Corcos E (eds) (1993) Visual Processes in Reading and Reading Disabilities. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  125. Wimmer H, Goswami U (1994) The influence of orthographic consistency on reading development: Word recognition in English and German children. Cognition 51:91–103

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Wimmer H, Mayringer H, Landerl K (1998) Poor reading: A deficit in skill-automatization or a phonological deficit? Scientific Studies of Reading 2, 4:321–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Wolff PH (1993) Impaired temporal resolution in developmental dyslexia. In: Tallal P, Galaburda AM, Llinás RR, von Euler C (eds) Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System: Special Reference to Dyslexia and Dysphasia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, 682:87–103

  128. World Health Organization (1992) Tenth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. Chapter V (F): Mental and Behavioural Disorders

  129. Yopp HK (1988) The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly 23:159–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Füchsleinstr. 15, D-97080, Würzburg, Germany

    Andreas Warnke

Authors
  1. Andreas Warnke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Warnke, A. Reading and spelling disorders: Clinical features and causes. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 8 (Suppl 3), S2–S12 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00010689

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00010689

Key words

Search

Navigation