Summary
This paper reviews the utility of topographic mapping of EEG and evoked potentials in psychiatry. Further, a wide variety of caveats related to this technique are reviewed including cerebral and extracerebral sources of artifact. Moreover, both questionable and legitimate uses of mapping in psychiatry are addressed and possible future applications of this technique are considered. Finally, multidisciplinary approaches to the study of the brain are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahn, H., Pricep, L., John, E.R., Baird, H., Trepetin, M. and Kaye, H. Development equations reflect brain dysfunctions. Science. 1980, 210:1259–1262.
American Electroencephalographic Society: Syllabus for Clinical EEG. J. Clinical Neurophysiol. 1984, 1:335–347.
American Electroencephalographic Society. Statement on the clinical use of quantitative EEG. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1987, 4:75.
American Psychiatric Association, Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Revised (ed 4). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.
Anderer, P., Saletu, B., Kinsperger, K. and Semlitsch, H. Topographic brain mapping of EEG in neuropsychopharmacology—Part I. Methodological aspects. Meth. and Find. Exptl. Clin. Pharmacol. 1987, 9:371.
Andersson, and Anderson, P. Thalamic origin of cortical rythmical activity. In: Reymond, A. (Ed.), Handbook of EEG Clinical Neurophysiology vol. 2C Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1974: 90–118.
Andreasen, N.C. Brain imaging: Applications in Psychiatry. Science. 1988, 239:1381–1388.
Ashton, H., Golding, V.R., Thompson, J.W., Hassanyeh, F. and Tyrer, S.P. Cortical evoked potentials and clinical rating scales as measures of depressive illness. Psychol. Med. 1988, 18:305–317.
Barlow, J.S. and Redmond, A. Eye-movement artifact nulling in EEGs by multichannel on-line EOG subtraction. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1981,52:418.
Begleiter, H., Porjesz, B., Behari, B. and Kissen, B. Event-related brain potentials in boys at risk for alcoholism. Science, 1984, 225:1493–1496.
Buchsbaum, M.S. Brain imaging (editorial). Biol. Psychiat. 1982a, 10:1057–1058.
Buchsbaum, M.S., Rigal, F., Coppola, R., Capaletti, J., King, C. and Johnson, J. A new system for gray level surface distribution maps of electrical activity. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1982b, 53:237–242.
Buchsbaum, M.S. and Haier, R.J. Psychopathology: Biological Approaches. Ann. Rev. Psychol. 1983, 34:401–430.
Buchsbaum, M.S., Hazlett, L.E., Sicotte, N., Stein, M., Wu, J. and Zetlin, M. Topographic EEG changes with benzodiazepine administration in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol. Psychiat., 1985, 20: 832–842.
Callaway, E. Schizophrenia and evoked potentials. In: H Begleiter (Ed.), Evoked brain potentials and behavior. Plenum Press, New York, 1980.
Cancro, R. The art of turf creation. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1989, 46:191–194.
Chiappa, K.H. Progress in topographic mapping of neuropsychiological data: Comments, In: F.H. Duffy (Ed.), Topographic Mapping of Brain Electrical Activity. Butterworth Publishers, Boston, MA, 1985.
Coburn, K.L. and Moreno, M.A. Facts and artifacts in brain electrical activity mapping. Brain Topography. 1988, 1:37.
Coffman, J.A. and Torello, M.W. Event-related brain potentials in depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. In: Maurer K. (Ed.), Topographic Brain Mapping of EEG and Evoked Potentials. Springer Verlag, 1989.
Coles, M.G.H., Donchin, E. and Porges, S.W. Psychophysiology: Systems, Processes and Applications. The Guilford Press, New York, NY, 1986.
Coppola, R. and Herrmann, W.M. Psychotropic drug profiles: Comparison by topographic maps of absolute power. Neuropsychobiology. 1987,18: 97–104.
Dawson, G.D. A summation technique for detecting small signals in a large irregular background. J. Physiol. 1951, 115: 2–10.
Donchin, E. Surprise!⋯Surprise? Psychophysiology, 1981, 18:493–515.
Duffy, F.H., Burchfiel, J.L., and Lombroso, C.T. Brain Electrical Activity Mapping (BEAM): A method for extending the clinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data. Ann. Neurol., 1979, 5: No. 4, 309.
Duffy, F.H., Denckla, M.B., Bartels, P.H., Sandini, G. and Keissling, L. Dyslexia: automated diagnosis by computerized classification of brain electrical activity. Ann. Neurol. 1980, 7:421.
Duffy, F.H., Denckla, M.B., Bartels, P.H., Sandini, G. and Keissling, L. Regional differences in brain electrical activity by topographic mapping. Ann. Neurol. 1980, 7:412.
Duffy, F.H., Bartels, P.H. and Burchfiel, J.L. Significance probability mapping: An aid in the topographic analysis of brain electrical activity. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1981, 51:455–462.
Duffy, F.H., Albert, M.S. and McAnulty, G. Brain electrical activity in patients with pre-senile and senile dementia of the alzheimers type. Ann. Neurol. 1984a, 16:439–448.
Duffy, F.H., Albert, M.S., McAnulty, G. and Garvey, A.J. Age related differences in brain electrical activity of healthy subjects. Ann. Neurol. 1984b, 16:430–438.
Duffy, F.H. Brain electrical activity mapping: Issues and answers, In: F.H. Duffy (Ed.) Topographic Mapping of Brain Electrical Activity, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, MA, 1985a.
Duffy, F.H. and Geschwind, N. Dyslexia: A Neuroscientific Approach to Clinical Evaluation. Boston/Toronto: Little, Brown and Company,1985b.
Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W., Rockstroth, B. and Birbaumer, N. Removal of ocular artifacts from the EEG—a biophysical approach to the EOG. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1985, 60:455.
Endicott, J. and Spitzer, A.L. A diagnostic interview: Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 1978, 35: 837.
Faux, S.F., McCarley, R.W., Torello, M.W., Shenton, M.E. and Duffy, F.H. P300 in schizophrenia: differentiation of schizophrenics and normal controls is enhanced by the Goodin subtraction procedure., Inter. J. Neurosci., 1988a, 39: 117.
Faux, S.F., Torello, M.W., McCarley, R.W., Shenton, M.E. and Duffy, F.H. P300 topographic alterations in schizophrenia: a replication study. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1988b, supplement 40: 688.
Faux, S.F., Torello, M.W., McCarley, R.W., Shenton, M.E. and Duffy, F.H. P300 in schizophrenia: Confirmation and statistical validation of temporal region deficit in P300 topography. Biol. Psychiat., 1988c, 23: 776–790.
Feighner, J.P., Robins, E., Guze, S., Woodruff, R.A., Winokur, G. and Moruz, R. Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 1972, 26: 57.
Finley, W.W., Faux, S.F., Hutchinson, J. and Amstutz, L. Long latency event-related potentials in the evaluation of cognitive function in children. Neurology. 1985, 35: 323–327.
Ford, R.G. A practical guide to EEG recording technique. Am. J. EEG Tech. 1981, 21:79–101.
Galaburda, A.M. and Sanides, F. Cytoarchitectonic organization of the human auditory cortex, J. Comp. Neurol., 1980, 190: 597.
Galambos, R. and Hilliard, S.A. Electrophysiological approaches to human cognitive processing. Neurosciences Research Program Bulletin. 1981, 20:141–265.
Gasser, R., Sroka, L. and Mocks, J. The correction of EOG artifacts by frequency dependent and frequency independent methods. Psychophysiology. 1986, 23:704.
Gevins, A.S., Yeager, C.L., Zetlin, G.M., Ancoli, S. and Dedon, M.F. A new method for off-line removal of ocular artifacts. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1977, 42: 267.
Gibbs, F.A., Davis, H. and Lennox, W.G. The EEG in epilepsy and in conditions of impaired consciousness. Arch. Neurol. and Psychiat., 1935, 34: 1133–1135.
Gloor, P. Hans Berger on the Electroencephalogram of Man. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1969, Suppl. 28, 1–350.
Goodin, D.S., Squires, K.C. and Starr, A. Age-related variations in evoked potentials to auditory stimuli in normal human subjects. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1978, 44:447.
Goodin, D.S., Squires, K.C. and Starr, A. Long latency event-related components of the auditory evoked potential in dementia. Brain. 1978, 101:635.
Goodin, D.S., Starr, A., Chippendale, T. and Squires, K.C. Sequential changes in the P3 component of the auditory evoked potential in confusional states and dementing illnesses. Neurology. 1983, 33:1215.
Halgren, E., Squires, N.K., Wilson, C.L., Rohrbaugh, J.W., Babb, T.L. and Crandall, P.H. Endogenous potentials generated in the human hippocampal formation and amygdala by infrequent events. Science. 1980, 210:803.
Halliday, R., Callaway, E. and Rosenthal, J.H. The visual ERP predicts clinical response to methylphenidate in hyperactive children. Psychophysiology. 1984, 21:114.
Hammond, E.J., Meter, K.J., Aung-Din, R. and Wilder, B.J. Cholinergic modulation of human P3 event-related potentials. Neurology. 1987, 37: 346–350.
Harner, R.N. Clinical Application of Computed EEG Topography. In: F.H. Duffy (Ed.), Topographic Mapping of Brain Electrical Activity, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, MA, 1986.
Hillyard, S.A. and Kutas, M. Electrophysiology of cognitive processing. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 1983, 34:33.
Hjorth, B. Source derivation simplifies topographical EEG interpretation. Am. J. EEG Tech., 1980, 20: 121–132.
Homan, R.W., Herman, J. and Purdy, P. Cerebral location of international 10–20 electrode placement. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1987, 66:376–382.
Hughes, J.R. and Wilson, W.P. EEG and Evoked Potentials in Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurology, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, MA1983.
Jasper, H.H. The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1958, 10: 371.
Jervis, B.W., Nichols, M.J., Allen, E.M., Hudson, N.R. and Johnson, T.E. The assessment of two methods for removing eye movement artifact from the EEG. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1985, 61:440.
John, E.R., Karmel, B.Z., Corning, W.C., Easton, P., Brown, D., Ahn, H., John, T. and Harmony, T. Neurometrics. Science 1977, 196:1393.
John, E.R., Ahn, H., Prichep, L., Trepetin, M. Brown, D. and Kaye, H. Developmental equations for the electroencephalogram. Science, 1980, 210: 1255–1258.
John, E.R., Princhep, L.S., Fridman, J. and Easton, P. Neurometrics: Computer assisted differential diagnosis of brain dysfunctions. Science. 1988, 239:162–169.
Johnstone, J., Galin, D., Fein, G., Yingling, C.D., Herron, J. and Marcus, M. Regional brain activity in dyslexic and control children during reading tasks: visual probe event-related potentials. Brain and Language. 1984, 21:233.
Josiassen, R.C., Shagass, C. and Roemer, R.A. Dealing with differential gender and age affects in evoked potential studies of psychopathology. Biol. Psychiat. 1988, 23:612–627.
Kahn, E.M., Weiner, R.D., Brenner, R.P. and Coppola, R. Topographic maps of brain electrical activity: pitfalls and precautions. Biol. Psychiat. 1988, 23:628–636.
Karson, C.N., Coppola, R., Morihisa, J.M. and Weinberger, D.R. Computed electroencephalographic activity mapping in schizophrenia: The resting state reconsidered. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1987, 44:514–517.
Karson, C.N., Coppola, R. and Daniel, D.G. Alpha frequency in schizophrenia and association with enlarged cerebral ventricles. Am. J. Psychiat. 1988, 145:861–864.
Keeney, S. Artifact: Sources and solutions. Am. J. EEG Tech. 1981, 21:147–158.
Kutas, M., Petten, C. and Besson, M. Event-related potential asymmetries during the reading of sentences. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1988, 69:218–233.
Kutas, M. and Hillyard, S.A. An electrophysiological probe of incidental semantic association. J. Cognit. Neurosci., 1989, 1:38–49.
Lee, S. and Buchsbaum, M.S. Topographic mapping of EEG artifacts. Clin. Electroenceph. 1987, 18:61–67.
Lehmann, D. and Skrandies, W. Reference-free identification of components of checkerboard-evoked multichannel potential fields. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1980, 48:609–621.
Leissner, P., Lindholm, L.E. and Petersen, I. Alpha amplitude dependence on skull thickness as measured by ultrasound technique. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1970, 29:392–399.
Mirsky, A.F. Behavioral and psychophysiological markers of disordered attention. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1987, 74:191–199.
Mirksy, A.F. Neuropsychological manifestations in predictors of HIV disease in vulnerable persons, In: T.P. Bridge et al. Psychological Neuropsychiatric and Substance Abuse Aspects of Aids. Raven Press. 1988.
Morihisa, J.M., Duffy, F.H. and Wyatt, R.J. Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM) in schizophrenic patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1983, 40: 719–728.
Morstyn, R., Duffy, F.H. and McCarley, R.W. Altered topography of the EEG spectral content in schizophrenia. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1983a, 56:263–271.
Morstyn, R., Duffy, F.H. and McCarley, R.W. Altered P300 topography in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1983b, 40:729–734.
Nunez, P.L. Electric Fields of the Brain: The Neurophysics of EEG, New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Nunez, P.L. The brains magnetic field: Some effects of multiple sources on localization methods. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1986,63:75–82.
Nuwer, M.R. Quantitative EEG. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 1987a, 44:840.
Nuwer, M.R. The centrifical affect in other spatial artifacts of other topographic EEG mapping. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1987b, 4:321–326.
Nuwer, M.R. Quantitative EEG: I. Techniques and problems of frequency analysis and topographic mapping. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1988a, No. 1, 5:1–43.
Nuwer, M.R. Quantitative EEG: II. Frequency analysis and topographic mapping in clinical settings. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1988b, 1:45–85.
Nuwer, M.R. In Reply. Arch. Gen. Psychiat.1989, 46:191–194.
Oken, B.S. Filtering and aliasing of muscle activity in EEG frequency analysis. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1986a, 64:77.
Oken, B.S. and Chiappa, K.H. Statistical issues concerning computerized analysis of brain wave topography. Ann. Neurol. 1986b, No.5, 19:493–497.
Pfefferbaum, A., Wenegrat, B.G., Ford, J.M., Roth, W.T. and Koppel, B.S. Clinical application of the P300 component of event-related potentials. II. Dementia, depression and schizophrenia. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1984, 59:104–124.
Pfurtscheller, G., and Cooper, R. Frequency dependence of the transmission of the EEG from cortex to scalp. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1975, 38:93–96.
Pfurtscheller, G. and Lopes da Silva, F.H. Functional Brain Imaging. Hahns Huber Publishers, Lewiston, NY, 1988.
Polich, J. Comparison of P300 from a passive tone sequence paradigm and inactive discrimination task. Psychophysiology. 1987, No. 1, 24:41–46.
Pollock, V.E., Schneider, L.S., Chui, H.C., Henderson, V., Zemansky, M. and Sloane, R.B. Visual evoked potentials in dementia: A meta-analysis and empirical study of Alzheimer's disease patients. Biol. Psychiat. 1989, 25:1003–1013.
Pritchard, W.S. Psychophysiology of the P300. Psychol. Bull., 1981, 89:506–540.
Roy, A. Pseudoseizures: A Psychiatric Perspective. J. Neuropsych. Clin. Neurosci. 1989, 1:69–71.
Rutter, M. Prevalence and types of dyslexia. In: A.L. Benton and D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1978.
Saletu, B., Grunberger, J., Saletu, M., Mader, R. and Karobath, M. The acute drug effect as predictor of therapeutic out-come. Adv. Biol. Paychiat. 1982, 9:67–80.
Scherg, M. and VonCramon, D. Evoked dipole source potentials of the human auditory cortex. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1986, 65:344–360.
Schwarzkopf, S.B., Chapman, R.M., Jimenez, M., Treglia, L., Cain, C.F., Burdy, J.S. and Nasrallah, H.A. Familiar and sporatic schizophrenia: Visual evoked potential differences. Biol. Psychiat. 1988, 24:828–833.
Semlitsch, H.V., Anderer, P., Schuster, P. and Otto, P. A solution for reliable and valid reduction of ocular artifacts, applied to the P300 ERP. Psychophysiology. 1986, 23:695–703.
Shagass, C. Brain potential studies of psychopathology. Compr. Psychiat. 1980, 21:218–225.
Shagass, C., Roemer, R.A., Straumenis, J.J. and Josiassen, R.C. Combinations of evoked potential amplitude measurements in relation to psychiatric diagnosis. Biol. Psychiat. 1985, 20:701–702.
Shearer, D.E., Cowan, N.B., Dustman, R.E. and Lamarsh, J.A. Electrophysiological correlates of gender differences: A review. Am. J. EEG Tech. 1984, 24:95–107.
Shinton, M.E., Faux, S.F., McCarley, R.W., Ballinger, R., Coleman, M., Torello, M.W. and Duffy, F.H. Correlation between abnormal auditory P300 topography and positive symptoms in schizophrenia: A preliminary report. Biol. Psychiat. 1989, 25:710–716.
Shucard, D.W., Cummins, K.R. and McGee, M.G. Event-related brain potentials differentiate normal and disabled readers. Brain and Language. 1984, 21:318–334.
Small, J.G., Milstein, V., Small, I.F., Miller, M.J., Kellams, J.J. and Corsaro, C.J. Computerized EEG profiles of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, clozapine and placebo in treatment resistant schizophrenia. Clin. Electroenceph. 1987, 18:124–135.
Spehlmann, R. Evoked Potential Primer: Visual, Auditory, and Somatosensory Evoked Potentials in Clinical Diagnosis. Butterworth Publishers. 1985.
Spitzer, R.L., Endicott, J. and Robins, E. Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) for a selected Group of Psychiatric Disorders. New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Institute, New York, 1977.
Squires, N.K, Halgren, E., Wilson, C. and Crandall, P. Human endogenous limbic potentials: Crossmodality and depth/surface comparison in epileptic subjects. In: A.W.K. Gaillard and W. Ritter (Eds.). Advances in Psychology: Tutorials in Event-Related Potential Research: Endogenous Components, vol. 10, p. 217, New York: North Holland, 1983.
St. Clair, D., Blackburn, I., Blackwood, D. and Tyrer, G. Measuring the course of Alzheimer's Disease: A Longitudinal study of neuropsychological function and changes in P3 event-related potentials. Brit. J. Psychiat. 1988, 152: 48–54.
Torello, M.W. and McCarley, R.W. The Use of Topographic Mapping Techniques in Clinical Studies in Psychiatry. In: F.H. Duffy (Ed.), Topographic Mapping of Brain Electrical Activity, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, MA, 1986a.
Torello, M.W., Garabis, J.M., Hunter, W.W. and Csuri, C.A. Combinational imaging: structure and function of the brain displayed simultaneously. Proceedings of the Society Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 1986b.
Torello, M.W., Phillips, T., Hunter, W.W. and Csuri, C.A. Combinational imaging: magnetic resonance imaging and EEG displayed simultaneously. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1987, 4(3): 274.
Torello, M.W., Schwarzkopf, S.B., Vespa, P.M., Olson, S.C., Coffman, J.A., Nasrallah, H.A. and McLaughlin, J. The measurement of the auditory P300 waveform in psychotic out-patients: correlations with clinical symptomotology. Presented at the Society of Biological Psychiatry Annual Meeting, 1988.
Tsuang, M.T. Heterogeneity of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiat. 1975, 10:465–473.
Tukey, J.W. Exploratory Data Analysis, New York, Addison-Wesley, 1977.
Vaughan, Jr. H.G. The neural origins of human event related potentials. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1982.
Westmoreland, B.F. Normal and benign EEG patterns. Am. J. EEG Tech. 1982, 22:3–31.
Wood, C.C., Allison, T., Goff, W.R, Williamson, P.D. and Spencer, D.D. On the neural origin of P300 in man. In: H.H. Kornhuber, L. Deecke (Eds.), Progress in Brain Research, vol.54. Motivation, Motor and Sensory Processes of the Brain, Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1980.
Wood, C.C. Application of dipole localization methods to source identification of human evoked potentials. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1982.
Yingling, C.D. and Hosobuchi, Y. A subcortical correlate of P300 in man. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1984, 59:72–76.
Yingling, C.D., Galin, D., Fein, G., Peltzman, D. and Davenport, L. Neurometrics does no detect "pure" dyslexia. Electroencephal. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1986, 63:426–430.
Yudofsky, S.C. and Hales, R.E. The Reemergence of Neuropsychiatry: Definition and Direction. J. Neuropsychiat. Clin. Neurosci. 1989,1:1–6.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was supported in part by Grant MH43547-01.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Torello, M.W. Topographic mapping of EEG and evoked potentials in psychiatry: Delusions, illusions, and realities. Brain Topogr 1, 157–174 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01129579
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01129579