Abstract
This article describes a first attempt to investigate the reliability and validity of the TOM test, a new instrument for assessing theory of mind ability in normal children and children with pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). In Study 1, TOM test scores of normal children (n = 70) correlated positively with their performance on other theory of mind tasks. Furthermore, young children only succeeded on TOM items that tap the basic domains of theory of mind (e.g., emotion recognition), whereas older children also passed items that measure the more mature areas of theory of mind (e.g., understanding of humor, understanding of second-order beliefs). Taken together, the findings of Study 1 suggest that the TOM test is a valid measure. Study 2 showed for a separate sample of normal children (n = 12) that the TOM test possesses sufficient test–retest stability. Study 3 demonstrated for a sample of children with PDDs (n = 10) that the interrater reliability of the TOM test is good. Study 4 found that children with PDDs (n = 20) had significantly lower TOM test scores than children with other psychiatric disorders (e.g., children with Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; n = 32), a finding that underlines the discriminant validity of the TOM test. Furthermore, Study 4 showed that intelligence as indexed by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children was positively associated with TOM test scores. Finally, in all studies, the TOM test was found to be reliable in terms of internal consistency. Altogether, results indicate that the TOM test is a reliable and valid instrument that can be employed to measure various aspects of theory of mind.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Astington, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M. (1995). Theory-of-mind development and social understanding. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 151–165.
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., Rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a ‘theory of mind’? Cognition, 21, 37–46.
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1986). Mechanical, behavioral and intentional understanding of picture stories in autistic children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 4, 113–125.
Bowler, D. M., Strom, E., & Urquhart, L. (1993). Elicitation of first-order “theory of mind” in children with autism. Paper presented at the SRCD Conference, New Orleans, LA.
Eisenmajer, R., & Prior, M. (1991). Cognitive linguistic correlates of “theory of mind” ability in autistic children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 351–364.
Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., & Miller, S. (1993). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Frith, U. (1989). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hadwin, J., Baron-Cohen, S., Howlin, P., & Hill, K. (1996). Can we teach children with autism to understand emotions, belief, or pretence? Development and Psychopathology, 8, 345–365.
Happé, F. (1994). Wechsler IQ profile and theory of mind in autism: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1461–1471.
Happé, F. (1995). The role of age and verbal ability in the theory-of-mind task performance of subjects with autism. Child Development, 66, 567–582.
Hogrefe, G. J., Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1986). Ignorance versus false belief: A developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states. Child Development, 57, 567–582.
Lalonde, C. E., & Chandler, M. J. (1995). False belief understanding goes to school: On the social-emotional consequences of coming early or late to a first theory of mind. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 167–185.
Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1988). Autistic children's understanding of seeing, knowing and believing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 315–324.
Ozonoff, S., & Miller, J. N. (1995). Teaching theory of mind: A new approach to social skills training for individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 415–433.
Perner, J., Frith, U., Leslie, A. M., & Leekam, S. (1989). Exploration of the autistic child's theory of mind: Knowledge, belief and communication. Child Development, 60, 689–700.
Perner, J., & Wimmer, H. (1985). ‘John thinks that Mary thinks that...’ Attribution of second-order beliefs by 5–10 years old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 437–471.
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 4, 515–526.
Prior, M., Dahlstrom, B., & Squires, T. (1990). Autistic children's knowledge of thinking and feeling states in other people. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 587–601.
Selman, R. L., & Byrne, D. F. (1974). A structural-developmental analysis of levels of role taking in middle childhood. Child Development, 45, 803–806.
Slaugther, V., & Gopnik, A. (1996). Conceptual coherence in the child's theory of mind: Training children to understand belief. Child Development, 67, 2967–2988.
Spence, S. (1980). Social skills training with children and adolescents. A counselor's manual. Windsor: NFER/Nelson.
Steememan, P. (1994). Theory-of-mind screening-schaal [Theory-of-mind screening-scale]. Leuven/Apeldoom: Garant.
Steememan, P., Jackson, S., Pelzer, H., & Muris, P. (1996). Children with social handicaps: An intervention program using a theory-of-mind approach. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1, 251–263.
Swettenham, J. (1996). Can children with autism be taught to understand false belief using computers? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 157–165.
Vijtigschild, W., Berger, H. J. C., & van Spaendonck, J. A. S. (1969). Sociale Interpretatie Test [Social Interpretation Test]. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Rev.). New York: Psychological Corp.
Wellman, H. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Whiten, A., Irving, K., & Macintyre, K. (1993). Can three-year-olds and people with autism learn to predict the consequences of false belief. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society Developmental Section Annual Conference, Birmingham, UK.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Muris, P., Steerneman, P., Meesters, C. et al. The TOM Test: A New Instrument For Assessing Theory of Mind in Normal Children and Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 29, 67–80 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025922717020
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025922717020