Abstract
Defects on crystal and/or thin film surfaces play an important role in their physical and chemical properties. Diffusion or motion of such structures results in microstructural dynamic changes. The diffusion of single atom/point defects were previously reported, due to the difficulty of observation, the motion of large-scale defects (the defect consist of multiple missing atoms) using combination of consecutive images has not been possible since today. For the first time, the diffusion of three mobile large-scale highly oriented pyrolytic graphite monolayer defect domains is reported using non-contact atomic force microscopy in ultra-high vacuum conditions. It was suspected that the diffusion of the defects was triggered by the rastering motion of the tip of atomic force microscope. It was evidenced that the diffusion of large defects is shown to be size-dependent, with smaller defects moving with higher speeds than larger defects. The diffusion results fit well with the models previously reported for the diffusion of particles for varying sizes and indicates that the diffusion of defects and particles show similar behaviours.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ala-Nissila T, Ferrando R, Ying SC (2002) Collective and single particle diffusion on surfaces. Adv Phys 51(3):949–1078. https://doi.org/10.1080/00018730110107902
Amara H et al (2007) Scanning tunneling microscopy fingerprints of point defects in graphene: a theoretical prediction. Phys Rev B 76(11):115423. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.76.115423
Babenko B, Yang M-H, Belongie S (2011) Robust object tracking with online multiple instance learning. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 33(8):1619–1632. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAMI.2010.226
Bassett DW, Parsley MJ (1970) Field ion microscope studies of transition metal adatom diffusion on (110), (211) and (321) tungsten surfaces. J Phys D Appl Phys 3(5):309. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/3/5/309
Bikondoa O et al (2006) Direct visualization of defect-mediated dissociation of water on TiO2(110). Nat Mater 5(3):189–192. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1592
Björkman T et al (2013) Defects in bilayer silica and graphene: common trends in diverse hexagonal two-dimensional systems. Sci Rep 3:3482. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep03482. Accessed 22 May 2018
Bradski G (2007) Tools, A K.-D. D. journal of software and 2000, undefined (no date) ‘OpenCV’, ros.exbot.net. http://ros.exbot.net/wiki/attachments/Events(2f)ICRA2010Tutorial/ICRA_2010_OpenCV_Tutorial.pdf. Accessed 22 May 2018
Campanera JM et al (2007) Density functional calculations on the intricacies of Moiré patterns on graphite. Phys Rev B 75(23):235449. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.75.235449
Chang H, Bard AJ (1991) Observation and characterization by scanning tunneling microscopy of structures generated by cleaving highly oriented pyrolytic graphite. Langmuir 7(6):1143–1153. https://doi.org/10.1021/la00054a021
Compton R et al (2008) Design, fabrication, characterisation and application of nanoelectrode arrays.pdf. Chem Phys Lett 1–6(459):1–17. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009261408004788. Accessed 22 May 2018
Das D et al (2013) Li diffusion through doped and defected graphene. Phys Chem Chem Phys 15(36):15128. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cp52891j
Eyre BL (1973) Transmission electron microscope studies of point defect clusters in fcc and bcc metals. J Phys F Met Phys 3(2):422–470. https://doi.org/10.1088/0305-4608/3/2/009
Gan Y, Sun L, Banhart F (2008) One- and two-dimensional diffusion of metal atoms in graphene. Small 4(5):587–591. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200700929
Gao J et al (2013) Structures, mobilities, electronic and magnetic properties of point defects in silicene. Nanoscale 5(20):9785. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr02826g
Guo L et al (2018) Direct formation of wafer-scale single-layer graphene films on the rough surface substrate by PECVD. Carbon 129:456–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBON.2017.12.023
Hashimoto A et al (2004) Direct evidence for atomic defects in graphene layers. Nature 430(7002):870–873. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02817
Henrich V, Cox P (1996) The surface science of metal oxides. https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=X6x1MmPisKkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Henrich+V+E+,+P.+A.+Cox,+The+Surface+Science+of+Metal+Oxides+(Cambridge+University+Press,+Cambridge,+1994).&ots=6u5Oq1kshI&sig=TPcj8BLZJ5eFmBg8h3DQYt4oM50. Accessed 22 May 2018
Herrero CP, Ramírez R (2009) Vibrational properties and diffusion of hydrogen on graphene. Phys Rev B 79(11):115429. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.79.115429
Horcas I et al (2007) WSXM: a software for scanning probe microscopy and a tool for nanotechnology. Rev Sci Instrum Am Inst Phys 78(1):013705. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2432410
Hövel H et al (1997) Crystalline structure and orientation of gold clusters grown in preformed nanometer-sized pits. Appl Surf Sci 2(115):124–127. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169433297801948. Accessed 23 May 2018
Hwang IS, Theiss SK, Golovchenko JA (1994) Mobile point-defects and atomic basis for structural transformations of a crystal-surface. Science 265(5171):490–496
Iovino G et al (2013) Effects of pressure, temperature, and particles size on O2 diffusion dynamics in silica nanoparticles. J Phys Chem C 117:18. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp312614j
Jacobsen J, Jacobsen KW, Sethna JP (1997) Rate theory for correlated processes: double jumps in adatom diffusion. Phys Rev Lett 79(15):2843–2846. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.2843
Jensen P (1999) Growth of nanostructures by cluster deposition: experiments and simple models. Rev Mod Phys 71(5):1695–1735. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.1695
José-Yacamán M et al (2005) Surface diffusion and coalescence of mobile metal nanoparticles. J Phys Chem B 109(19):9703–9711. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp0509459
Kellogg GL (1994) Field ion microscope studies of single-atom surface diffusion and cluster nucleation on metal surfaces. Surf Sci Rep 21(1–2):1–88. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0167572994900078. Accessed 22 May 2018
Kellogg GL, Feibelman PJ (1990) Surface self-diffusion on Pt(001) by an atomic exchange mechanism. Phys Rev Lett 64(26):3143–3146. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.64.3143
Koc M (2015) Non contact atomic force microscopy investigation of silicon nanoparticles deposited on HOPG. https://lra.le.ac.uk/handle/2381/36124. Accessed 22 May 2018
Kotakoski J, Mangler C, Meyer JC (2014) Imaging atomic-level random walk of a point defect in graphene. Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4991
Lo R-L et al (1998) Diffusion of single hydrogen atoms on Si(111)-(7 × 7) surfaces. Phys Rev Lett 80(25):5584–5587. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.5584
Melmed AJ et al (1979) Evidence for reconstructed {001} tungsten obtained by field-ion microscopy. Phys Rev Lett 43(20):1521–1524. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.1521
Mitsui T et al (2005) Diffusion and pair interactions of CO molecules on Pd(111). Phys Rev Lett 94(3):036101. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.036101
Mo YW et al (1991) Activation energy for surface diffusion of Si on Si(001): a scanning-tunneling-microscopy study. Phys Rev Lett 66(15):1998–2001. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.66.1998
Newburgh R, Peidle J, Rueckner W (2006) Einstein, Perrin, and the reality of atoms: 1905 revisited. Am J Phys 74(6):478–481. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2188962
Özçelik VO, Gurel HH, Ciraci S (2013) Self-healing of vacancy defects in single-layer graphene and silicene. Phys Rev B 88(4):045440. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.88.045440
Özden S, Koc MM (2018) Spectroscopic and microscopic investigation of MBE-grown CdTe (211)B epitaxial thin films on GaAs (211)B substrates. Appl Nanosci 8(4):891–903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0727-7. p.
Prévot G et al (2000) Non-isotropic surface diffusion of lead on Cu (110): a molecular dynamics study. Surf Sci 459(1–2):57–68. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039602800004490. Accessed 22 May 2018
Rabe JP, Buchholz S (1991) Commensurability and mobility in two-dimensional molecular patterns on graphite. Science 253(5018):424–427. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.253.5018.424
Robach JS et al (2003) In-situ transmission electron microscopy observations and molecular dynamics simulations of dislocation-defect interactions in ion-irradiated copper. Philos Mag 83(8):955–967. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141861031000065329
Rong ZY, Kuiper P (1993) Electronic effects in scanning tunneling microscopy: Moiré pattern on a graphite surface. Phys Rev B 48(23):17427–17431. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.48.17427
Rose F et al (2006) Adsorption and combing of DNA on HOPG surfaces of bulk crystals and nanosheets: application to the bridging of DNA between HOPG/Si heterostructures. Nanotechnology 17(13):3325–3332. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/17/13/041
Schaub R et al (2003) Oxygen-mediated diffusion of oxygen vacancies on the TiO2(110) surface. Science 299(5605):377–379. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078962
Schroeder W et al (2006) The visualization toolkit: an object-oriented approach to 3D graphics. Kitware
Seidman DN (1973) The direct observation of point defects in irradiated or quenched metals by quantitative field ion microscopy. J Phys F Met Phys 3(2):393–421. https://doi.org/10.1088/0305-4608/3/2/008
Stabel A et al (1998) Surface defects and homogeneous distribution of silver particles on HOPG. Langmuir 14(25):7324–7326. https://doi.org/10.1021/la9804334
Sun GF et al (2011) Si diffusion path for pit-free graphene growth on SiC(0001). Phys Rev B 84(19):195455. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.84.195455
Swartzentruber BS (1996) Direct measurement of surface diffusion using atom-tracking scanning tunneling microscopy. Phys Rev Lett 76(3):459–462. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.76.459
Tan TY, Gösele U (1985) Point defects, diffusion processes, and swirl defect formation in silicon. Appl Phys A Solids Surf 37(1):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00617863
Trevethan T et al (2014) Vacancy diffusion and coalescence in graphene directed by defect strain fields. Nanoscale 6(5):2978–2986. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3NR06222H
Tsetseris L, Pantelides ST (2009) Adatom complexes and self-healing mechanisms on graphene and single-wall carbon nanotubes. Carbon 47(3):901–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2008.12.002
Vadukumpully S, Paul J, Valiyaveettil S (2009) Cationic surfactant mediated exfoliation of graphite into graphene flakes. Carbon 47(14):3288–3294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2009.07.049
Wang B et al (2017) In situ TEM study of interaction between dislocations and a single nanotwin under nanoindentation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces Am Chem Soc 9(35):29451–29456. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b11103
Wang B et al (2018) New deformation-induced nanostructure in silicon. Nano Lett Am Chem Soc 18(7):4611–4617. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b01910
Yi M, Shen AZ (2015) A review on mechanical exfoliation for the scalable production of graphene. J Mater Chem A 3(22):11700–11715. http://pubs.rsc.org/-/content/articlehtml/2015/ta/c5ta00252d. Accessed 22 May 2018
Zhang Z, Guo D et al (2015) A novel approach of high speed scratching on silicon wafers at nanoscale depths of cut. Sci Rep Nat Publ Group 5(1):16395. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16395
Zhang Z, Wang B et al (2015) Changes in surface layer of silicon wafers from diamond scratching. CIRP Ann 64(1):349–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CIRP.2015.04.005
Zhang Z, Wang B, Zhou P, Kang R et al (2016a) A novel approach of chemical mechanical polishing for cadmium zinc telluride wafers. Sci Rep Nat Publ Group 6(1):26891. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep26891
Zhang Z, Wang B, Zhou P, Guo D et al (2016b) A novel approach of chemical mechanical polishing using environment-friendly slurry for mercury cadmium telluride semiconductors. Sci Rep Nat Publ Group 6(1):22466. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22466
Zhang Z, Huang S et al (2017) A novel approach of high-performance grinding using developed diamond wheels. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 91(9–12):3315–3326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0037-3
Zhang Z, Cui J et al (2017) A novel approach of mechanical chemical grinding. J Alloys Compd 726:514–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2017.08.024
Zhang Z, Du Y et al (2017) Nanoscale wear layers on silicon wafers induced by mechanical chemical grinding. Tribol Lett 65(4):132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-017-0911-z
Zhang Z et al (2018) A novel approach of chemical mechanical polishing for a titanium alloy using an environment-friendly slurry. Appl Surf Sci North Holland 427:409–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APSUSC.2017.08.064
Zhang Z et al (2019) Environment friendly chemical mechanical polishing of copper. Appl Surf Sci North-Holland 467–468:5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APSUSC.2018.10.133
Acknowledgements
Part of this project was funded by Kirklareli University Scientific Research Office with project number of KLUBAP115. Finally, we are also thankful Dr Klaus von Haeften and Prof Chris Bins for allowing us to use their microscope facility at University of Leicester.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Supplementary material 1 (WMV 7600 KB)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Koç, M.M., Ragkousis, G.E. AFM induced diffusion of large scale mobile HOPG defects. Appl Nanosci 9, 1459–1468 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0929-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0929-z