Abstract
Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this study examined trends in depression and the longitudinal impacts of teacher autonomy support and teacher–student relationships on students’ depressive symptoms. A total of 1613 Chinese primary school students (48.17% females) and 1397 Chinese middle school students (47.67% females) completed self-report questionnaires on depression, teacher autonomy support, and teacher–student relationships. The measurements were conducted in the 4th, 5th, and 6th grades for the primary school group and in the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades for the middle school group. Latent growth curve modelling revealed that the depressive symptoms of the primary school girls increased while the primary school boys’ depressive symptoms declined over time. The middle school students’ depressive symptoms increased, with no gender differences. As hypothesized, the findings underlined the buffering effect of teacher autonomy support and teacher–student relationships on depression in both primary school and middle school and for both boys and girls.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Åhlén, J., & Ghaderi, A. (2017). Evaluation of the children’s depression inventory—short version (CDI–S). Psychological Assessment, 29(9), 1157–1166. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000419
Ahnert, L., Harwardt-Heinecke, E., Kappler, G., Eckstein-Madry, T., & Milatz, A. (2012). Student-teacher relationships and classroom climate in first grade: how do they relate to students’ stress regulation? Attachment and Human Development, 14(3), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.673277
Bao, X., & Lam, S. (2008). Who makes the choices? Rethinking the role of autonomy and relatedness in Chinese children’s motivation. Child Development, 79(2), 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01125.x
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135(6), 885–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017376
Cheon, S. H., Reeve, J., & Ntoumanis, N. (2018). A needs-supportive intervention to help PE teachers enhance students’ prosocial behavior and diminish antisocial behavior. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 35, 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.010
Cheon, S. H., Reeve, J., & Song, Y.-G. (2016). A teacher-focused intervention to decrease PE students’ amotivation by increasing need satisfaction and decreasing need frustration. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38, 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0236
Chirkov, V. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Parent and teacher autonomy-support in Russian and US adolescents common effects on well-being and academic motivation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology., 32(5), 618–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032005006
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation; the oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 85–107, Chapter xvii, 579 Pages) Oxford University Press.
Essau, C. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Sasagawa, S. (2010). Gender differences in the developmental course of depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 127(1), 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.05.016
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21(6), 1016–1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.21.6.1016
Geng, S., Wei, Q., Jiang, T., & Wang, W. (2020). Professionalism of the classroom teacher: systematic construction based on empirical research. Chinese Journal of Education, 12, 94–98. (In Chinese).
Gilman, S. E., Kawachi, I., Fitzmaurice, G. M., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socio-economic status, family disruption and residential stability in childhood: relation to onset, recurrence and remission of major depression. Psychological Medicine, 33(8), 1341–1355. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291703008377
Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Tally, S. R., & Dong, Q. (2000). Family, peer, and individual correlates of depressive symptomatology among US and Chinese adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.209
Guo, J., Ren, X., Wang, X., Qu, Z., Zhou, Q., Ran, C., Wang, X., & Hu, J. (2015). Depression among migrant and left-behind children in China in relation to the quality of parent-child and teacher-child relationships. PLoS ONE, 10(12), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145606
Gutiérrez, M., & Tomás, J. M. (2019). The role of perceived autonomy support in predicting university students’ academic success mediated by academic self-efficacy and school engagement. Educational Psychology, 39(6), 729–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1566519
Han, M. R., & Yang, J. P. (2006). Research of competence of middle-school head teacher. Theory and Practice of Education, 02, 59–61. (In Chinese).
Hayward, C. (2003) (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty. Cambridge University Press.
Hou, J. Q., & Chen, Z. Y. (2016). The trajectories of adolescent depressive symptoms Identifying latent subgroups and risk factors. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 48(8), 957–968. (In Chinese).
Hou, Z. J. (1997). The relationship between secondary school students' social support systems and mental health. Master’s thesis, Beijing Normal University. WanFang Database.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008). The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychological Review, 115(2), 291–313. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.291
Jakobsen, J. C., Gluud, C., Wetterslev, J., & Winkel, P. (2017). When and how should multiple imputation be used for handling missing data in randomised clinical trials – a practical guide with flowcharts. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 17(1), 162. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-017-0442-1
Jang, H., Kim, E. J., & Reeve, J. (2012). Longitudinal test of self-determination theory’s motivation mediation model in a naturally occurring classroom context. JoUrnal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 1175–1188. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028089
Jang, H., Kim, E. J., & Reeve, J. (2016). Why students become more engaged or more disengaged during the semester: A self-determination theory dual-process model. Learning and Instruction, 43, 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.002
Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean students? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 644–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014241
Johnson, B. (2008). Teacher–student relationships which promote resilience at school: a micro-level analysis of students’ views. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 36(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880802364528
Kovacs, M. (2003). Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI): Technical manual update. Multi-Health Systems.
Lewis, A. J., Sae-Koew, J. H., Toumbourou, J. W., & Rowland, B. (2020). Gender differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms across childhood and adolescence: a multi-group growth mixture model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.027
Li, J., Chen, X., Zhao, C., & Xu, Y. (2016). Prevalence of depression in Chinese children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Chinese Journal of Child Health Care, 24(3), 295–298. (In Chinese).
Li, J., Deng, M., Wang, X., & Tang, Y. (2018). Teachers’ and parents’ autonomy support and psychological control perceived in junior-high school: extending the dual-process model of self-determination theory. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.005
Ni, H., Li, C., Li, B., & Xi, H. (2020). Elementary students’ perceptions of classroom resilience-promoting factors in China and the United States. International Journal of School and Educational Psychology, 8(1), 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2018.1523030
Núñez, J. L., Fernández, C., León, J., & Grijalvo, F. (2015). The relationship between teacher’s autonomy support and students’ autonomy and vitality. Teachers and Teaching, 21(2), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2014.928127
Pössel, P., Burton, S. M., Cauley, B., Sawyer, M. G., Spence, S. H., & Sheffield, J. (2018). Associations between social support from family, friends, and teachers and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(2), 398–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10964-017-0712-6
Pössel, P., Rudasill, K. M., Sawyer, M. G., Spence, S. H., & Bjerg, A. C. (2013). Associations between teacher emotional support and depressive symptoms in Australian adolescents a 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031767
Reddy, R., Rhodes, J. E., & Mulhall, P. F. (2003). The influence of teacher support on student adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and Psychopathology, 15(1), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579403000075
Reeve, J. (2006). Teachers as facilitators: What autonomy-supportive teachers do and why their students benefit. Elementary School Journal, 106(3), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1086/501484
Reeve, J. (2009). Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44(3), 159–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903028990
Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.209
Ren, Z., Jiang, G., & Ye, Y. (2011). The moderating and mediating effects of core self-evaluation on the relationship between class environment and adolescent depression. Psychological Science, 34(5), 1106–1112. (In Chinese).
Rhodes, J. E., Spencer, R., Keller, T. E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A model for the influence of mentoring relationships on youth development. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 691–707. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20124
Rudasill, K. M., Pössel, P., Black, S. W., & Niehaus, K. (2014). Teacher support mediates concurrent and longitudinal associations between temperament and mild depressive symptoms in sixth grade. Early Child Development and Care, 184(6), 803–818. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2013.821610
Rutten, C., Boen, F., & Seghers, J. (2012). How school social and physical environments relate to autonomous motivation in physical education: the mediating role of need satisfaction. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31(3), 216–230. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.31.3.216
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_03
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guilford Press.
Salk, R. H., Petersen, J. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). The contemporary face of gender differences and similarities in depression throughout adolescence: development and chronicity. Journal of Affective Disorders, 205, 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.071
Scher, C. D., Ingram, R. E., & Segal, Z. V. (2005). Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(4), 487–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.01.005
Schotte, C. K. W., Bossche, B. V. D., Doncker, D. D., Claes, S., & Cosyns, P. (2006). A biopsychosocial model as a guide for psychoeducation and treatment of depression. Depression and Anxiety, 23(5), 312–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20177
Schuitema, J., Peetsma, T., & van der Veen, I. (2016). Longitudinal relations between perceived autonomy and social support from teachers and students’ self-regulated learning and achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 49, 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.05.006
Stroet, K., Opdenakker, M.-C., & Minnaert, A. (2013). Effects of need supportive teaching on early adolescents’ motivation and engagement: a review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 9, 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.11.003
Tang, X., Tang, S., Ren, Z., & Wong, D. F. K. (2019). Prevalence of depressive symptoms among adolescents in secondary school in mainland China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.043
van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., & Mabbe, E. (2017). Children’s daily well-being: The role of mothers’, teachers’, and siblings’ autonomy support and psychological control. Developmental Psychology, 53(2), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/DEV0000218
Wang, M. T. (2009). School climate support for behavioral and psychological adjustment: testing the mediating effect of social competence. School Psychology Quarterly, 24(4), 240–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017999
Wang, M.-T., Brinkworth, M. E., & Eccles, J. S. (2013). Moderating effects of teacher–student relationship in adolescent trajectories of emotional and behavioral adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 49(4), 690–705. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027916
Way, N., Reddy, R., & Rhodes, J. (2007). Students’ perceptions of school climate during the middle school years: associations with trajectories of psychological and behavioral adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40, 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9143-y
Williams, G. C., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Internalization of biopsychosocial values by medical students: a test of self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 767–779. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.767
World Health Organization. (2018). Adolescent mental health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
Xu, D. D., Rao, W. W., Cao, X. L., Wen, S. Y., An, F. R., Che, W. I., Bressington, D. T., Cheung, T., Ungvari, G. S., & Xiang, Y. T. (2020). Prevalence of depressive symptoms in primary school students in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 268, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.02.034
Xu, D. D., Rao, W. W., Cao, X. L., Wen, S. Y., Che, W. I., Ng, C. H., Ungvari, G. S., Du, Y., Zhang, L., & Xiang, Y. T. (2018). Prevalence of major depressive disorder in children and adolescents in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241, 592–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAD.2018.07.083
Xu, Y., & Deng, H. (2016). Effect of senior high school students’ study and interpersonal stress on the relationship between school climate and depression. Modern Preventive Medicine, 43(9), 1630–1633. (In Chinese).
Yu, C., Li, X., Wang, S., & Zhang, W. (2016). Teacher autonomy support reduces adolescent anxiety and depression: an 18-month longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 49, 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.03.001
Yu, S., Chen, B., Levesque-Bristol, C., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018). Chinese education examined via the lens of self-determination. Educational Psychology Review, 30(1), 177–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9395-x
Zhang, W., Li, H., Gong, Y., & Ungar, M. (2013). Stressful events and depression among Chinese adolescents: the mitigating role of protective factors. School Psychology International, 34(5), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034312472760
Zhang, Y., Li, T., Yao, R., Han, H., Wu, L., Wu, X., Gao, H., Sun, L., & Fu, L. (2020). Comparison of body-image dissatisfaction among Chinese children and adolescents at different pubertal development stages. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13, 555–562. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S242645
Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology: a biosocial model. Springer: American Psychological Association.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from the teachers and parents.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, D., Jin, B. & Cui, Y. Do Teacher Autonomy Support and Teacher–Student Relationships Influence Students’ Depression? A 3-Year Longitudinal Study. School Mental Health 14, 110–124 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-021-09456-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-021-09456-4