Abstract
The aim of this article is to gain an understanding of the relations between the design of bathrooms and the use of the toilet with privacy when residents are unsteady, visually impaired and/or have dementia. The background is that earlier studies and own experiences in Norway indicate that the way bathrooms are designed is crucial for users to be as independent as possible when using the toilet. This article does not include studies on the access to toilets and washbasins for residents who are able to stand on their own. Neither have we studied the use of diapers. The scientific approach includes historical analyses of the rise of privacy when toileting and analyses of bathroom design practices in 20 Norwegian nursing homes. Our investigations show that the expectation that individuals should rid themselves of urine and faces in locked, private rooms arose in connection with the industrialization, democratization and hygienic modernization of Western countries. Analyses of contemporary nursing homes show that many institutions do not have design to facilitate privacy: there are no adjustable toilets, no crutch or walking stick holders, no flushing mechanisms within reach from a sitting position, no toilets that are visible from the residents’ bed, poor contrasts; the toilet paper, soap dispensers and paper towels are out of reach from a sitting position; there are few handles, few adjustable sinks and more than 70 cm between the toilet and the sink.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
BANO (2014). Designed for care. http://www.bano.no/company. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Boge, J. (2014). Funksjonaliteten til baderom i sjukeheim/The functionality of bathrooms in nursing homes. https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/278230/1/Rapport11_14_web.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Eek, E., & Lunde, P. (2014). Fremtidens baderom på sykehus/the future of the bathroom in the hospital Bergen: Helse Bergen HF, Bano AS, Innovest AS. http://www.bano.no/pdf/FINAL%20Bano%20fremtidens%20baderom_read_.pdf, Accessed 15 June 2017.
Elias, N. (1989). The Civilizing Process, Vol. I. The History of Manners Vol. I. Stockholm: Atlantis.
Enders, G. (2015). Sjarmen med tarmen/gut: The inside story of our Body's most underrated organ. Oslo: Cappelen Damm AS.
Frykman, J. (1994). Hel og ren/whole and clean. In J. Frykman & O. Löfgren (Eds.), Det kultiverte menneske (pp. 131–221). Oslo: Pax Forlag.
Furu, B. (2008). Fremtidens eldreboliger. Toalettproblematikk for eldre og funksjonshemmede/The future homes for old people. Elderly and the disabled's toilet issues. Trondheim: Trondheim kommune http://innomed.no/uploads/09-Toalettproblematikk-for-eldre-og-funksjonshemmede_161019_120334.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Government. (2013). Tomorrow's care. Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Health and Social Care https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/meld.-st.-29-2012-2013/id723252/. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Greed, C. (2004). Public toilets: The need for compulsory provision. University of the West England, Bristol. http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/24155/1/muen157-077.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Greed, C. (2012). Incusive urban design. Hoboken: Taylor & Frances.
Hauge, S. (2004). Jo mere vi er sammen, jo gladere vi blir?, Institutt for sykepleievitenskap og helsefag, Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo.
Hauge, S., & Heggen, K. (2007). Nursing home as a home. Journal of Clinical Nursing. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02031.
Husbanken (2009). Rom for trygghet og omsorg/guidelines for the design of residential homes and nursing homes. Oslo: Norwegian State Housing Bank. http://www.husbanken.no/omsorgsboliger/viktig-veileder-om-utforming-av-omsorgsboliger-og-sykehjem/. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Johnsen, G. (2007). Den optimale defekasjons stilling giver succes/the optimal elimination position is a succes. Sygeplejersken, 9, 41-44, https://dsr.dk/sygeplejersken/arkiv/sy-nr-2007-2009/den-optimale-defaekationsstilling-giver-succes. Accessed 2015.2006.2017.
Kira, A. (1976). The bathroom. New York: Penguin Books.
Kirkevold, M., Brodtkorb, K., & Ranhoff, A. H. (2014). Geriatrisk sykepleie/Geriatric nursing. Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk.
Kjeldstadli, K. (2003). Fortida er ikke hva den en gang var/The past is not what it once was (2. utg. ed.). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Lawler, J. (1991). Behind the screens: nursing, somology and the problem of the body. Sydney. Sydney: University Press.
Lunde, P. (2010). Erfaringer med baderom på sykehjem - og fra sykehus/experiences with bathrooms in nursing homes - and in hospitals. Oslo: Forflytningsteknikk AS. http://docplayer.me/252857-Erfaringer-med-baderom-pa-sykehjem-og-fra-sykehus.html. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Lunde, P., & Eek, E. (2014). Fremtidens baderom på sykehus/the future bathrooms in the hospitals. Bergen: Helse Bergen HF, BANO AS, Innovest AS http://www.bano.no/pdf/FINAL%20Bano%20fremtidens%20baderom_read_.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Lundström, I., Hermansen, R., & Kellmer, I.-H. (1978). Om renslighet: Hygienen gjennom tidene/about cleanliness: A historic perspective. Bergen: Bryggens museum.
Martinsen, K. (2003). Den engelske sanitation-bevegelsen, hygiene og synet på sykdom/The English sanitation movement, hygiene and the understanding of the disease. In Omsorg, sykepleie og medisin: historisk-filosofiske essays (2. utg. ed., pp. 169–181). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Mekki, T., & Holter, M. (2011). Sykepleieboken 1/Nursing Book 1. Oslo: Akribe.
Molenbroek, J., Mantas, J., & de Bruin, R. (2011). Friendly rest room : Developing toilets of the future for disabled and elderly people. Amsterdam, Assistive Technology Research Series, IOS press. http://www.iospress.nl/book/a-friendly-rest-room-developing-toilets-of-the-future-for-disabled-and-elderly-people/. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Nesbit, R. (2014). Universell utforming av baderom i bo - og behandlingssenter/Universal Design of Bathrooms in Nursing Homes. Norges miljø- og biovitenskapelige universitet, Oslo. https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/217917/Nesbit_Rebecca_2014.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed 15 June 2017.
Nightingale, F. (1992/1860). Notes on Nursing: What It Is and what It Is Not. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Økland, B. G., & Høiås, K. (2000). Bare boss? /only rubbish? Bergen: Bryggens Museum.
Schiøtz, A. (2003). Folkets helse - landets styrke/public health - the country's strenght. 1850–2003. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
Sundt, E. (1869). Om renligheds-stellet i Norge /about cleanliness in Norway. Oslo: Gyldendal.
Sydnes, T. (2001). Centrale ideer i Florence Nightingales sykepleiefilosofi /Cental ideas in Florence Nightingales nursing philosophy. In R. Birkelund (Ed.), Omsorg, kald og kamp. Personer og ideer i sykepleiens historie. København: Gyldendal.
Vigarello, G. (1988). Concepts of cleanliness:Changing attitudes in France since the middle ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Funding
The study is funded by Bergen University College.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The study is in compliance with ethical standards.
Conflict of Interest
There are no competing interests to declare in relation to this manuscript.
Informed Consent
The study did not require ethics committee approval since no personal data were analyzed. When we researched the bathrooms, the head of the nursing homes had asked the residents for permission. Research assistants/bachelor’s students in nursing were not allowed to take identifiable photos or data with them when leaving the nursing home. All data were controlled by the project manager/first author before publication. The interviews on the resident’s use of the toilet did not include personal, identifiable data.
Ethical Treatment of Experimental Subjects (Animal and Human)
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Boge, J., Callewaert, S. & Petersen, K.A. The Impact of Bathroom Design on Privacy for Users with Special Needs. Ageing Int 44, 300–317 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-017-9311-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-017-9311-9