Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Criminal Justice Contact, Stressors, and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Adults in the United States

  • Published:
American Journal of Criminal Justice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Criminal justice contact—defined as lifetime arrest, parole, or incarceration is associated with higher odds of experiencing depressive symptoms. Findings from this study suggest that there is a mechanism that links family, neighborhood, and financial stressors among Black adults with criminal justice contact to depressive symptoms. Using the National Survey of American Life (NSAL), modified poisson regression analyses were used to determine the association between criminal justice contact, stressors, and depressive symptoms among a national sample of Black adults (n = 3570). In the full model, the odds of experiencing depressive symptoms for Black adults who had criminal justice contact was reduced (PR: 1.14 to PR: 1.07). Black adults who reported experiencing family stressors (PR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.16), neighborhood stressors (PR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.13), and financial stressors (PR: 1.13, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.19) were statistically significant and higher than those who reported not experiencing any of these stressors. Stressors partially mediates the relationship between criminal justice contact and depressive symptoms (OR: 1.05, Bias-corrected 95% CI: 1.04, 1.07); causing the effect of criminal justice contact to reduce to 1.06, leaving a significant indirect effect of 1.05. The total effect is 1.93 times larger than the direct effect, and 48.3% of the total effect is due to stressors. These findings emphasize the need to further explore the family, neighborhood, and financial stressors for Black adults with criminal justice contact in order to further our understanding of their depressive symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Archibald, P., Dobson-Sydnor, K., Daniels, K., & Bronner, Y. (2013). Explaining African-Americans’ depressive symptoms: A stress-distress and coping perspective. Journal of Health Psychology, 18, 321–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baier, C. J., & Wright, B. E. (2001). If you love me, keep my commandments: A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolomucci, A., & Leopardi, R. (2009). Stress and depression: Preclinical research and clinical implications. PLoS One, 4(1), e4265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baune, B. (2009). Conceptual challenges of a tentative model of stress-induced depression. PLoS One, 4(1), e4266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bharmal, N., Tseng, C.-H., Kaplan, R., & Wong, M. D. (2012). State-level variations in racial disparities in life expectancy. Health Services Research, 47, 544–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binswanger, I., Redmond, N., Steiner, J., & Hicks, L. S. (2012). Health disparities and the criminal justice system: An agenda for further research and action. Journal of Urban Health, 89(1), 98–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brame, R., Bushway, S. D., Paternoster, R., & Turner, M. G. (2014). Demographic patterns of cumulative arrest prevalence by ages 18 and 23. Crime and Delinquency, 60, 471–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Jackson, J. S., Tucker, M. B., & Bowman, P. J. (1999). Culturally-competent research methods in African American communities: An update. In R. Jones (Ed.), Advances in African American psychology (pp. 101–127). Hampton: Cobb & Henry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, E. A. (2015). Prisoners in 2014. NCJ 248955. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p14.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, E. A., & Sabol, W. J. (2016). Aging of the State Prison Population, 1993-2013. NCJ 248766. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/aspp9313.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control (CDC) National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) (2015). Leading causes of death reports, national and regional, 1999 – 2015. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS). Retrieved from https://webappa.cdc.gov/cgi-bin/broker.exe.

  • Christian, J., & Thomas, S. S. (2009). Examining the intersections of race, gender, and mass incarceration. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 7, 69–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, R., & Wallace, S. (2016). Identifying the link between food security and incarceration. Southern Economic Journal, 82, 1062–1077.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curry, A., Latkin, C., & Davey-Rothwell, M. (2008). Pathways to depression: The impact of neighborhood violent crime on inner-city residents in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Social Science and Medicine, 67(1), 23–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davey-Rothwell, M. A., Flamm, L., Kassa, H. T., & Latkin, C. A. (2014). Journal of Community Psychology, 42(4), 469–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeCoster, J., & Iselin, A. (2005). Spreadsheet: Logistic coefficient to odds ratio. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwjkss2NiqPXAhVDPxQKHT9UBGQQFggmMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stat-help.com%2Fspreadsheets%2FLogistic%2520Coefficient%2520to%2520Odds%2520Ratio.xls&usg=AOvVaw1PEDVXIMnTEdoCkEVtuE88.

  • deVuono-powell, S., Schweidler, C., Walters, A., & Zohrabi, A. (2015). Who pays? The true cost of incarceration on families. Oakland: Ella Baker Center, Forward Together, Research Action Design.

    Google Scholar 

  • Djuric, Z., Bird, C., Furumoto-Dawson, A., Rauscher, G., Ruffin, M., Stowe, R., Tucker, K., & Masi, C. (2008). Biomarkers of psychological stress in health disparities research. Open Biomarkers Journal, 1, 7–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. S., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1981). Life stress and illness: Formulation of the issues. In: B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events and their contexts (pp. 1–27). New York: Prodist.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drucker, E. (2011). A plague of prisons: The epidemiology of mass incarceration in America. New York: The New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edgar, K., & Martin, C. (2004). Perceptions of race and conflict: Perspectives of minority ethnic prisoners and of prison officers. Centre for Criminological Research: University of Oxford Retrieved from http://library.college.police.uk/docs/hordsolr/rdsolr1104.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ender, P. (n.d.). Mediation with binary mediator and/or response variables. UCLA. Academic Technology Services, Statistical Consulting Group. Retrieved from http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/stata/faq/binary_mediation.htm

  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2015). Uniform crime reports: Table 43a-c. Crime in the United States. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/tables/table-43

  • Fiske, A., Wetherell, J. L., & Gatz, M. (2009). Depression in older adults. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 363–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabbidon, S., & Peterson, S. (2006). Living while black: A state-level analysis of the influence of select stressors on the quality of life among black Americans. Journal of Black Studies, 37(1), 83–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age-patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 826–833.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginn, S. (2012). Prison environment and health. British Medical Journal, 345(7875), e5921.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, S., Haney, C., & Hurtado, A. (2000). Cycles of pain: Risk factors in the lives of incarcerated mothers and their children. The Prison Journal, 80(1), 3–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, D. (1993). Minorities and mental health. Social Science and Medicine, 36, 597–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harburg, E., Erburt, J. C., Hauenstein, L. S., Chape, C., Schull, W. J., & Schork, M. A. (1973). Socioecological stress, suppressed hostility, skin color and black-white male blood pressure: Detroit. Psychosomatic Medicine, 35, 276–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harding, D. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Herbert, C. (2013). Home is hard to find: Neighborhoods, institutions, and the residential trajectories of returning prisoners. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 647, 214–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasin, D. S., Goodwin, R. D., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F. (2005). Epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcoholism and related conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1097–1106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassine, V., Johnson, R., & Tabriz, S. (2010). Life without parole: Living in prison today, 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

  • Hill, N. E., & Herman-Stahl, M. A. (2002). Neighborhood safety and social involvement: Associations with parenting behaviors and depressive symptoms among African American and euro-American mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(2), 209–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hochstetler, A., Murphy, D. S., & Simons, R. L. (2004). Damaged goods: Exploring the predictors of distress in prison inmates. Crime and Delinquency, 50(3), 436–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, C. L., Caplan, L., Schulz, E., Blake, V., Southward, P., Buckner, A., & Lawrence, H. (2009). Role of religion in cancer coping among African Americans: A qualitative examination. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 27, 248–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, W. (1982). The clinical measurement package: A field manual. Homewood: Dorsey Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. S., & Caldwell, C. H. (2012). Conducting qualitative research with African American and Caribbean black adult and adolescent populations: Strategies for training interviewers from experiences with the National Survey of American life. In J. S. Jackson, C. H. Caldwell, & S. L. Sellers (Eds.), Researching black communities: A methodological guide (pp. 190–206). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. S., Torres, M., Caldwell, C. H., Neighbors, H. W., Nesse, R. M., Taylor, R. J., Trierweiler, S. J., & Williams, D. R. (2005). The National Survey of American life: A study of racial, ethnic and cultural influences on mental disorders and mental health. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13(4), 196–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, D. J., & Glaze, L. E. (2006). Mental health problems of prison and jail inmates. Bureau of Justice Statistics (NCJ 213600). Office of Justice Programs, US Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/mhppji.pdf

  • Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2003). Strain, negative emotions, and deviant coping among African Americans: A test of general strain theory. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 79–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B. R., Larson, D. B., De Li, S., & Jang, S. J. (2000). Escaping from the crime of inner cities: Church attendance and religious salience among disadvantaged youth. Justice Quarterly, 17, 377–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junior, D. P., & Muniz, J. (2006). Stop or I’ll call the police! British Journal of Criminology, 46, 234–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P. A., Zhao, S., Leaf, P. J., Kouzis, A. C., Bruce, M. L., Freidman, R. L., Grosser, R. C., Kennedy, C., Narrow, W. E., Kuehnel, T. G., Laska, E. M., Manderscheid, R. W., Rosenheck, R. A., Santoni, T. W., & Schneier, M. (1996). The 12-month prevalence and correlates of serious mental illness (SMI). In R. W. Manderscheid & M. A. Sonnenschein (Eds.), Mental health, United States (pp. 59–70). Rockville: Center for Mental Health Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, D. (2008). Blues from the neighborhood? Neighborhood characteristics and depression. Epidemiologic Reviews, 30, 101–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klest, B. (2012). Childhood trauma, poverty, and adult victimization. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(3), 245–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., & Curry, A. D. (2003). Stressful neighborhoods and depression: A prospective study of the impact of neighborhood disorder. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(1), 34–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler-Row, K. A., & Elliott, J. (2009). The role of religious activity and spirituality in the health and well-being of older adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(1), 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerman, A. E., & Weaver, V. M. (2014). Arresting citizenship: The democratic consequences of American crime control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lindquist, K. (n.d.). How can I estimate relative risk using glm for common outcomes in cohort studies?: STATA FAQ. UCLA. Academic Technology Services, Statistical Consulting Group. Retrieved from http://stats.idre.ucla.edu/stata/faq/how-can-i-estimate-relative-risk-using-glm-for-common-outcomes-in-cohort-studies/

  • Link, B., & Phelan, J. (1995). Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(Extra Issue), 80–94.

  • Lopoo, L. M., & Western, B. (2005). Incarceration and the formation and stability of marital unions. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 721–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundman, R. J., & Kaufman, R. L. (2003). Driving while black: Effects of race, ethnicity, and gender on citizen self-reports of traffic stops and police actions. Criminology, 41, 195–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., & Dwyer, J. H. (1993a). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17, 144–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., & Dwyer, J. H. (1993b). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17, 144–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mair, C., Diez Roux, A. V., & Galea, S. (2008). Are neighbourhood characteristics associated with depressive symptoms? A review of evidence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(11), 940–946.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massagolia, M. (2008). Incarceration, health, and racial disparities in health. Law and Society Review, 42(2), 275–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S. (2004). Segregation and stratification: A biosocial perspective. Du Bois Review, 1, 7–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massoglia, M. (2008). Incarceration as exposure: The prison, infectious disease and other stress-related illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 56–71.

  • McEwen, B. (2000). Allostasis and allostatic load: Implications for neuropsychopharmacology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 22, 108–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual. Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(18), 2093–2101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNutt, L. A., Wu, C., Xue, X., & Hafner, J. P. (2003). Estimating the relative risk in cohort studies and clinical trials of common outcomes. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157(10), 940–943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, O. L., Castro-Schilo, L., & Aguilar-Gaxiola, S. (2014). Determinants of mental health and self-rated health: A model of socioeconomic status, neighborhood safety, and physical activity. American Journal of Public Health, 104(9), 1734–1741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1986). Social patterns of distress. Annual Review of Sociology, 12, 23–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics. (2009). Age-sex-adjusted percentage of adults aged 18 years and over who experienced serious psychological distress during the past 30 days, by race/ethnicity: United States, 2008. National Health Interview Survey. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/200906_13.pdf.

  • Nestler, E. J., Barrot, M., DiLeone, R. J., Eisch, A. J., Gold, S. J., & Monteggia, L. M. (2002). Neurobiology of depression. Neuron, 34, 13–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newport, F. (2013, July 16). In U.S., 24% of young Black men say police dealings unfair. Gallup. Retrieved from http://news.gallup.com/poll/163523/one-four-young-black-men-say-police-dealings-unfair.aspx.

  • Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. The American Journal of Sociology, 108, 937–975.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papp, L. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2007). Linkages between spouses’ psychological distress and marital conflict in the home. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 533–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, M. N., & Jones, R. T. (1999). Minority status stress: Effect on the psychological and academic functioning of African American students. Journal of Gender, Culture, and Health, 4(1), 61–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(3), 241–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., Lieberman, M. A., Menaghan, E. G., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 337–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., & Skaff, M. M. (1996). Stress and the life course: A paradigmatic alliance. The Gerontologist, 36, 229–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004). Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 151–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, C., Hand, D., & Boudreau, B. (2005). Validity of a 12-item version of the CES-D used in the longitudinal study of children and youth. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 26(2–3), 65–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt-Harris, N. C., Sinclair, M. M., Bragg, C. B., Williams, N. R., Ture, K. N., Smith, B. D., et al. (2016). Police-involved homicide of unarmed black males: Observations by black scholars in the midst of the April 2015 Baltimore uprising. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3–4), 377–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, T., Elliott, P., & Roberts, R. (2013). The relationship between personal unsecured debt and mental and physical health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1148–1162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L., & Reiger, D. A. (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America: The epidemiologic catchment area study. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (2009). Neighborhood disorder, subjective alienation, and distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(1), 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, K. (1998). The color of crime. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell-Brown, K. (2004). Underground codes: Race, crime and related fires. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. P., Davis, R. K., & Yang, H. (2001). Reintegration services and the likelihood of adult imprisonment: A longitudinal study of adjudicated delinquents. Research on Social Work Practice, 11(3), 321–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santiago, C. D., Wadsworth, M. E., & Stump, J. (2011). Socioeconomic status, neighborhood disadvantage, and poverty-related stress: Prospective effects on psychological syndromes among diverse low-income families. Journal of Economic Psychology, 32(2), 218–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnittker, J., & John, A. (2007). Enduring stigma: The long-term effects of incarceration on health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 115–130.

  • Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2012). Out and down: Incarceration and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53(4), 448–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, E., Holt, C. L., Caplan, L., Blake, V., Southward, P., Buckner, A., & Lawrence, H. (2008). Role of spirituality in cancer coping among African Americans: A qualitative examination. Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 2, 104–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K. (2003). An examination of the factor structure of the index of race-related stress among a sample of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 292–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sentencing Project. (2008). Reducing racial disparity in the criminal justice system: A manual for practitioners and policymakers. Grant Number 98-DD-BX-0060. Washington DC: National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved from http://www.sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Reducing-Racial-Disparity-in-the-Criminal-Justice-System-A-Manual-for-Practitioners-and-Policymakers.pdf

  • Shlafer, R. J., & Poehlmann, J. (2010). Attachment and caregiving relationships in families affected by parental incarceration. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 395–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoenberger, N. (2012). Young men’s contact with criminal justice system (FP-12-01). National Center for Family & Marriage Research. Retrieved from http://ncfmr.bgsu.edu/pdf/family_profiles/file105783.pdf.

  • Siennick, S. E., Stewart, E. A., & Staff, J. (2014). Explaining the association between incarceration and divorce. Criminology, 52, 371–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • StataCorp. (2015). Stata statistical software: Release 14. College Station: StataCorp LP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternthal, M., Slopen, N., & Williams, D. R. (2011). Racial disparities in health: How much does stress really matter? Du Bois Review, 8(1), 95–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sykes, G. (1971). The society of captives: A study of a maximum security prison. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoits, PA. (1995). Stress, coping and social support processes: Where are we?: What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(Extra Issue), 53–79.

  • Thompson, M. (2008). Gender, mental illness and crime. Final technical report (2007-IJ-DX-0004) National Institute of Justice. Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/224028.pdf

  • UCLA Institute for Digital Research and Education (n.d.). How can I perform a factor analysis with categorical (or categorical and continuous) variables?: Stata FAQ. Retrieved from http://stats.idre.ucla.edu/stata/faq/how-can-i-perform-a-factor-analysis-with-categorical-or-categorical-and-continuous-variables/.

  • van den Berg, J. J., Roberts, M. B., Bock, B. C., Martin, R. A., Stein, L. A. R., Parker, D. R., McGovern, A. R., Shuford, S. H., & Clarke, J. G. (2016). Changes in depression and stress after release from a tobacco-free prison in the United States. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(1), 114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Western, B. (2002). The impact of incarceration on wage mobility and inequality. American Sociological Review, 67, 526–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Western, B., & Wildeman, C. (2009). The black family and mass incarceration. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 621, 221–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R. (2000). Race, stress, and mental health. In C. Hogue, M. Hargraves, & K. Scott-Collins (Eds.), Minority health in America (pp. 209–243). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., Leavell, J., & Collins, C. (2010). Race, socioeconomic status, and health: Complexities, ongoing challenges, and research opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 69–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization and Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. (2014). Social determinants of mental health. Geneva: World Health Organization Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112828/1/9789241506809_eng.pdf?ua=1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, J. (2014). Criminal justice contact in adolescence and depressive symptoms in early adulthood. (Electronic Thesis or Dissertation). Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/

  • Zou, G. A. (2004). Modified poisson regression approach to prospective studies with binary data. American Journal of Epidemiology, 159(7), 702–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by a grant from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to the University of Mississippi Medical Center (1R25HL126145-01).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul C. Archibald.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Archibald, P.C. Criminal Justice Contact, Stressors, and Depressive Symptoms Among Black Adults in the United States. Am J Crim Just 43, 486–508 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9421-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9421-7

Keywords

Navigation