Opinion statement
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is an exclusively human neurotropic alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection causes varicella (chickenpox), after which virus becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. With advancing age or immunosuppression, cell-mediated immunity to VZV declines and virus reactivates to cause zoster (shingles), which can occur anywhere on the body. Skin lesions resolve within 1–2 weeks, while complete cessation of pain usually takes 4–6 weeks. Zoster can be followed by chronic pain (postherpetic neuralgia), cranial nerve palsies, zoster paresis, meningoencephalitis, cerebellitis, myelopathy, multiple ocular disorders and vasculopathy that can mimic giant cell arteritis. All of the neurological and ocular disorders listed above may also develop without rash. Diagnosis of VZV-induced neurological disease may require examination of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serum and/ or ocular fluids. In the absence of rash in a patient with neurological disease potentially due to VZV, CSF should be examined for VZV DNA by PCR and for anti-VZV IgG and IgM. Detection of VZV IgG antibody in CSF is superior to detection of VZV DNA in CSF to diagnose vasculopathy, recurrent myelopathy, and brainstem encephalitis. Oral antiviral drugs speed healing of rash and shorten acute pain. Immunocompromised patients require intravenous acyclovir. First-line treatments for post-herpetic neuralgia include tricyclic antidepressants, gabapentin, pregabalin, and topical lidocaine patches. VZV vasculopathy, meningoencephalitis, and myelitis are all treated with intravenous acyclovir.
Similar content being viewed by others
References and Recommended Reading
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance•• Of major importance
Gilden DH, Dueland AN, Cohrs R, et al. Preherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1991;41:1215–8.
Insinga RP, Itzler RF, Pellissier JM, et al. The incidence of herpes zoster in a United States administrative database. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:748–53.
Harnisch JP. Zoster in the elderly: clinical, immunologic and therapeutic considerations. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1984;32:789–93.
Gilden DH, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R. Clinical and molecular pathogenesis of varicella virus infection. Viral Immunol. 2003;16:243–58.
Leppard B, Naburi AE. Herpes zoster: an early manifestation of HIV infection. Afr Health. 1998;21:5–6.
Tyndall MW, Nasio J, Agoki E, et al. Herpes zoster as the initial presentation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in Kenya. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:1035–7.
Kakourou T, Theodoridou M, Mostrou G, et al. Herpes zoster in children. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998;39:207–10.
Selbst RG, Selhorst JB, Harbison JW, et al. Parainfectious optic neuritis report and review following varicella. Arch Neurol. 1983;40:347–50.
Kurimoto T, Tonari M, Ishizaki N, et al. Orbital apex syndrome associated with herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Clin Ophthalmo. 2011;5:1603–8.
Lambade P, Lambade D, Saha TK, et al. Maxillary osteonecrosis and spontaneous teeth exfoliation following herpes zoster. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012;16:369–72.
Payten RJ, Dawes JDK. Herpes zoster of the head and neck. J Laryngol Otol. 1972;86:1031–55.
Robillard RB, Hilsinger Jr RL, Adour KK. Ramsay Hunt facial paralysis: clinical analyses of 185 patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1986;95:292–7.
Steffen R, Selby G. ‘Atypical’ Ramsay Hunt syndrome. Med J Aust. 1972;1:227–30.
Asnis DS, Micic L, Giaccio D. Ramsay Hunt syndrome presenting as a cranial polyneuropathy. Cutis. 1996;57:421–4.
Lapresle J, Lasjaunias P. Cranial nerve ischaemic arterial syndromes. Brain. 1986;109:207–15.
Easton HG. Zoster sine herpete causing acute trigeminal neuralgia. Lancet. 1970;2:1065–6.
Hevner R, Vilela M, Rostomily R, et al. An unusual cause of trigeminal- distribution pain and tumour. Lancet Neurol. 2003;2:567–72.
Murakami S, Honda N, Mizobuchi M, et al. Rapid diagnosis of varicella zoster virus infection in acute facial palsy. Neurology. 1998;51:1202–5.
Osaki Y, Matsubayashi K, Okumiya K, et al. Polyneuritis cranialis due to varicella-zoster virus in the absence of rash. Neurology. 1995;45:2293–4.
Murata K, Miwa H, Kondo T. Polyneuritis cranialis caused by varicella zoster virus in the absence of rash. Neurology. 2010;74:85–6.
Brostoff J. Diaphragmatic paralysis after herpes zoster. Br Med J. 1966;2:1571–2.
Stowasser M, Cameron J, Oliver WA. Diaphragmatic paralysis following cervical herpes zoster. Med J Aust. 1990;153:555–6.
Tjandra J, Mansel RE. Segmental abdominal herpes zoster paresis. Aust N Z J Surg. 1986;56:807–8.
Molinero J, Nagore E, Obón L, et al. Metameric motor paresis following abdominal herpes zoster. Cutis. 2002;69:143–4.
Izumi AK, Edwards Jr J. Herpes zoster and neurogenic bladder dysfunction. JAMA. 1973;224:1748–9.
Jellinek EH, Tulloch WS. Herpes zoster with dysfunction of bladder and anus. Lancet. 1976;2:1219–22.
Umehara T, Sengoku R, Mitsumura H, et al. Findings of segmental zoster paresis on MRI. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2011;82:694.
Choi JY, Kang CH, Kim BJ, et al. Brachial plexopathy following herpes zoster infection: two cases with MRI findings. J Neurol Sci. 2009;285:224–6.
Gupta SK, Helal BH, Kiely P. The prognosis in zoster paralysis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1969;51:593–603.
Thomas EJ, Howard Jr FM. Segmental zoster paresis – a disease profile. Neurology. 1972;22:459–66.
Head H, Campbell AW. The pathology of herpes zoster and its bearing on sensory localization. Brain. 1900;23:353–523.
Denny-Brown D, Adams RD, Fitzgerald PJ. Pathologic features of herpes zoster: A note on "geniculate herpes.". Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1944;51:216–31.
Cheatham WJ, Dolan Jr TF, Dower JC, et al. Varicella: report on two fatal cases with necropsy, virus isolation, and serologic studies. Am J Pathol. 1956;32:1015–35.
Esiri MM, Tomlinson AH. Herpes zoster: demonstration of virus in trigeminal nerve and ganglion by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. J Neurol Sci. 1972;15:35–48.
Ghatak NR, Zimmerman HM. Spinal ganglion in herpes zoster. Arch Pathol. 1973;95:411–5.
Hope-Simpson RE. Postherpetic neuralgia. J R Coll Gen Pract. 1975;25:571–5.
de Moragas JM, Kierland RR. The outcome of patients with herpes zoster. Arch Dermatol. 1957;75:193–6.
Rogers III RS, Tindall JP. Herpes zoster in the elderly. Postgrad Med. 1971;50:153–7.
Smith FP. Pathological studies of spinal nerve ganglia in relation to intractable intercostal pain. Surg Neurol. 1978;10:50–3.
Watson CPN, Deck JH, Morshead C, et al. Postherpetic neuralgia: further post-mortem studies of cases with and without pain. Pain. 1991;44:105–17.
Vafai A, Wellish M, Gilden DH. Expression of varicella-zoster virus in blood mononuclear cells of patients with postherpetic neuralgia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1988;85:2767–70.
Devlin ME, Gilden DH, Mahalingam R, et al. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells of the elderly contain varicella-zoster virus DNA. J Infect Dis. 1992;165:619–22.
Mahalingam R, Wellish M, Brucklier J, et al. Persistence of varicella-zoster virus DNA in elderly patients with postherpetic neuralgia. J NeuroVirol. 1995;1:130–3.
Terada K, Niizuma T, Kawano S, et al. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in peripheral mononuclear cells from patients with Ramsay Hunt syndrome or zoster sine herpete. J Med Virol. 1998;56:359–63.
Attal N, Cruccu G, Baron R, et al. EFNS guidelines on the pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain. Eur J Neurol. 2010;17:1113–88.
Hans G, Sabatowski R, Binder A, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of a 5 % lidocaine medicated plaster for the topical treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia: results of a long-term study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009;25:1295–305.
Dubinsky RM, Kabbani H, El-Chami Z, et al. Practice parameter: treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: an evidence-based report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2004;63:959–65.
Backonja M, Wallace MS, Blonsky ER, et al. NGX-4010 C116 Study Group. NGX-4010, a high-concentration capsaicin patch, for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised, double-blind study. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:1106–12.
Backonja MM, Malan TP, Vanhove GF, et al. NGX-4010, a high-concentration capsaicin patch, for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double-blind, controlled study with an open-label extension. Pain Med. 2010;11:600–8.
Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D. Nortriptyline and gabapentin, alone and in combination for neuropathic pain: a double-blind, randomised controlled crossover trial. Lancet. 2009;374:1252–61.
Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D, et al. Morphine, gabapentin, or their combination for neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:132–1334.
Rehm S, Binder A, Baron R. Post-herpetic neuralgia: 5 % lidocaine medicated plaster, pregabalin, or a combination of both? A randomized, open, clinical effectiveness study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26:1607–19.
Ruiz Huete C, Bermejo PE. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of neuropathic pain in a case of postherpetic neuralgia [in Spanish]. Neurologia. 2008;23:259–62.
Sotiriou E, Apalla Z, Panagiotidou D, et al. Severe post-herpetic neuralgia successfully treated with botulinum toxin A: three case reports. Acta Derm Venereol. 2009;89:214–5.
Xiao L, Mackey S, Hui H, et al. Subcutaneous injection of botulinum toxin a is beneficial in postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Med. 2010;11:1827–33.
van Wijck AJ, Opstelten W, Moons KG, et al. The PINE study of epidural steroids and local anaesthetics to prevent postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;367:219–24.
Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, et al. Spinal cord stimulation in postherpetic neuralgia and in acute herpes zoster pain. Anesth Analg. 2002;94:694–700.
Surjya PU, Shiv PR, Mishra S, et al. Successful treatment of an intractable postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) using peripheral nerve field stimulation (PNFS). Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2010;27:59–62.
Lynch PJ, McJunkin T, Eross E, et al. Case report: successful epiradicular peripheral nerve stimulation of the C2 dorsal root ganglion for postherpetic neuralgia. Neuromodulation. 2011;14:58–61.
Yakovlev AE, Peterson AT.: Peripheral nerve stimulation in treatment of intractable postherpetic neuralgia. Neuromodulation 2007, 373-375.
Kouroukli I, Neofytos D, Panaretou V, et al. Peripheral subcutaneous stimulation for the treatment of intractable postherpetic neuralgia: two case reports and literature review. Pain Prac. 2009;9:225–9.
Kang JH, Ho JD, Chen YH, et al. Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study. Stroke. 2009;40:3443–8.
Lin HC, Chien CW, Ho JD. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and the risk of stroke: a population-based follow-up study. Neurology. 2010;74:792–7.
Amlie-Lefond C, Bernard TJ, Sébire G, et al. Predictors of cerebral arteriopathy in children with arterial ischemic stroke: results of the International Pediatric Stroke Study. Circulation. 2009;119:1417–23.
Nagel MA, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, et al. The varicella zoster vasculopathies: clinical, CSF, imaging, and virologic features. Neurology. 2008;70:853–60.
Nagel MA, Choe A, Khmeleva N, et al.: Search for varicella zoster virus and herpes simplex virus-1 in normal human cerebral arteries. J NeuroVirol. 2013;19:181–85.
Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Gilden DH. Varicella-zoster virus infections of the nervous system: clinical and pathologic correlates. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2001;125:770–80.
Nagel MA, Traktinskiy I, Azarkh Y, et al. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy: analysis of virus-infected arteries. Neurology. 2011;77:364–70. Correlative analysis of viral and muscle cell markers in cerebral arteries from patients with VZV vasculopathy.
Nagel MA, Traktinskiy I, Stenmark KR, et al. Varicella-zoster virus vasculopathy: immune characteristics of virus-infected arteries. Neurology. 2013;80:62–8. Analysis of the immune repertoire in arteries of patients with VZV vasculopathy.
Lee RM. Morphology of cerebral arteries. Pharmacol Ther. 1995;66:149–73.
Mayberg MR, Langer RS, Zervas NT, et al. Perivascular meningeal projections from cat trigeminal ganglia: possible pathway for vascular headaches in man. Science. 1981;213:228–30.
Mayberg MR, Zervas NT, Moscowitz MA. Trigeminal projections to supratentorial pial and dural blood vessels in cats demonstrated by horseradish peroxidase histochemistry. J Comp Neurol. 1984;223:46–56.
Salazar R, Russman AN, Nagel MA, et al. VZV ischemic optic neuropathy and subclinical temporal artery involvement. Arch Neurol. 2011;68:517–20.
Nagel MA, Russman AN, Feit DO, et al. VZV ischemic optic neuropathy andsubclinical temporal artery infection without rash. Neurology. 2013;80:220–2.
Mathias M, Nagel MA, Khmeleva N, et al. VZV multifocal vasculopathy withischemic optic neuropathy, acute retinal necrosis and temporal artery infection in the absence of zoster rash. J Neurol Sci. 2013;325:180–2.
Nagel MA, Bennett JL, Khmeleva N, et al.: Multifocal VZV vasculopathy withtemporal artery infection mimics giant cell arteritis. Neurology 2013, (in press). Exciting new study indicating that the clinical features of multifocal VZV vasculopathy with temporal artery infection can be the same as seen in classic giant cell arteritis.
Habib AA, Gilden D, Schmid DS, et al. Varicella zoster virus meningitis with hypoglycorrhachia in the absence of rash and in an immunocompetent woman. J Neurovirol. 2009;15:206–8.
Gunson RN, Aitken C, Gilden D. A woman with acute headache and sacral dermatomal numbness. J Clin Virol. 2011;50:191–3.
Moses H, Nagel MA, Gilden DH. Acute cerebellar ataxia in a 41 year old woman. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5:984–8.
Ratzka P, Schlachetzki JC, Bähr M, et al. Varicella zoster virus cerebellitis in a 66-year-old patient without herpes zoster. Lancet. 2006;367:182.
Gilden DH, Beinlich BR, Rubinstien EM, et al. Varicella-zoster virus myelitis: an expanding spectrum. Neurology. 1994a;44:1818–23.
Devinsky O, Cho ES, Petito CK, et al. Herpes zoster myelitis. Brain. 1991;114:1181–96.
de Silva SM, Mark AS, Gilden DH, et al. Zoster myelitis: improvement with antiviral therapy in two cases. Neurology. 1996;47:929–31.
Orme HT, Smith G, Nagel MA, et al. VZV spinal cord infarction identified bydiffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI). Neurology. 2007;69:398–400.
Bonfioli AA, Eller AW. Acute retinal necrosis. Semin Ophthalmol. 2005;20:155–60.
Guex-Crosier Y, Rochat C, Herbort CP. Necrotizing herpetic retinopathies. A spectrum of herpes virus-induced diseases determined by the immune state of the host. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1997;5:259–65.
Lewis JM, Nagae Y, Tano Y. Progressive outer retinal necrosis after bone marrow transplantation. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122:892–5.
Franco-Paredes C, Bellehemeur T, Merchant A, et al. Aseptic meningitis and optic neuritis preceding varicella-zoster progressive outer retinal necrosis in a patient with AIDS. AIDS. 2002;16:1045–9.
Menerath JM, Gerard M, Laurichesse H, et al. Bilateral acute retinal necrosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1995;18:625–33.
Johnston WH, Holland GN, Engstrom Jr RE, et al. Recurrence of presumed varicella-zoster virus retinopathy in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;116:42–50.
Moorthy RS, Weinberg DV, Teich SA, et al. Management of varicella zoster virus retinitis in AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:189–94.
Austin RB. Progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome: a comprehensive review of its clinical presentation, relationship to immune system status, and management. Clin Eye Vis Care. 2000;12:119–29.
Friedman SM, Mames RN, Sleasman JW, et al. Acute retinal necrosis after chickenpox in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:1607–8.
Galindez OA, Sabates NR, Whitacre MM, et al. Rapidly progressive outer retinal necrosis caused by varicella zoster virus in a patient infected with humanimmunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:149–51.
Goon P, Wright M, Fink C. Ophthalmic zoster sine herpete. J R Soc Med. 2000;93:191–2.
Hon C, Au WY, Cheng VC. Ophthalmic zoster sine herpete presenting as oculomotor palsy after marrow transplantation for acute myeloid leukemia. Haematologica. 2005;90:12. EIM04.
Noda Y, Nakazawa M, Takahashi D, et al. Retinal periphlebitis as zoster sine herpete. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:1550–2.
Yamamoto S, Tada R, Shimomura Y, et al. Detecting varicella-zoster virus DNA in iridocyclitis using polymerase chain reaction: a case of zoster sine herpete. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113:1358–9.
Silverstein BE, Chandler D, Neger R, et al. Disciform keratitis: a case of herpes zoster sine herpete. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:254–5.
Lewis GW. Zoster sine herpete. Br Med. 1958;J 2:418–42.
Gilden DH, Wright RR, Schneck SA, et al. Zoster sine herpete, a clinical variant. Ann Neurol. 1994;35:530–3.
Amlie-Lefond C, Mackin GA, Ferguson M, et al. Another case of virologically confirmed zoster sine herpete with electrophysiologic correlation. J Neurovirol. 1996;2:136–8.
Blumenthal DT, Shacham-Shmueli E, Bokstein F, et al. Zoster sine herpete: virological verification by detection of anti-VZV IgG antibody in CSF. Neurology. 2011;76:484–5.
Nagel MA, Forghani B, Mahalingam R, et al. The value of detecting anti-VZV IgG antibody in CSF to diagnose VZV vasculopathy. Neurology. 2007;68:1069–73.
Haug A, Mahalingam R, Cohrs RJ, et al. Recurrent polymorphonuclear pleocytosis with increased red blood cells caused by varicella zoster virus infection of the central nervous system. J Neurol Sci. 2010;292:85–8.
Gilden D, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA, Pugazhenthi S, Cohrs RJ. Review: The neurobiology of varicella zoster virus infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2011;37:441–63.
Gilden DH, Mahalingam R, Cohrs RJ, et al. The protean manifestations of varicella-zoster virus vasculopathy. J NeuroVirol. 2002;8:75–9.
Gilden D, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, et al. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: diverse clinical manifestations, laboratory features, pathogenesis, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8:731–40.
Gilden DH, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Wellish M, et al. Varicella zoster virus, a cause of waxing and waning vasculitis: the NEJM case 5-1995 revisited. Neurology. 1996;47:1441–6.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grants AG006127 and AG032958 to DG and NS067070 to MAN. The authors wish to thank Marina Hoffman for editorial assistance and Lori DePriest for manuscript preparation.
Compliance with Ethics Guidelines
Conflict of Interest
Maria A. Nagel and Don Gilden declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nagel, M.A., Gilden, D. Complications of Varicella Zoster Virus Reactivation. Curr Treat Options Neurol 15, 439–453 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-013-0246-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-013-0246-5