Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Mixed Method Investigation of Past Trainees’ Perceptions of a Critical Incident Situational Awareness Training Program

  • Published:
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the arena of skills training for acting in complex, high-stress environments, situation awareness has been identified as a key characteristic of successful operators. The definition of situation awareness has evolved over time to include psychophysiological state management, stress inoculation, and cognitive components. This paper utilizes a mixed methods design to examine a training program, which claims to combine the aforementioned situation awareness components in protocols developed for military, law enforcement, and private security personnel. Four past participants of the training program completed in-depth, semi-structured interviews about their experience with the training. Subsequently, a training-specific survey was developed to more thoroughly investigate trainees’ experiences. Survey responses of the program’s trainees (n = 32) were compared to non-program trainees from similar fields (n = 35) on quantitative measures. Open-ended responses of the program’s trainees were qualitatively analyzed. Overall, program trainees were found to perceive the training as positively impacting their situation awareness ability in stressful/threatening situations and non-stressful situations compared to the non-program trainees. Qualitative analyses conducted with the interviews and on open-response survey items provide descriptive explanations for how the training program is perceived to be influencing situation awareness abilities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. To investigate if the large amount of the SAS training group that were non-US nationals influenced the effects, we also compared the responses of US only nationals from each group. Fifteen participants that were US nationals had complete data for each group. No significant group differences were found for PA-S, STAI or PSS. The non-SAS group was found to perceive their performance in non-stressful situations (PS-NS) as significantly better (M = 35.47, SD = 3.78) compared to the SAS group (M = 32.33, SD = 4.22), t(28) = −2.14, p = 0.04. This effect was not found in the overall group data. Importantly, the SAS group still perceived the impact of the SAS training to be significantly better in stressful (M = 37.40, SD = 6.59), t(28) = 2.32, p = 0.03, and non-stressful (M = 30.67, SD = 6.22), t(28) = 2.38, p = 0.03, situations compared to the non-SAS group (stressful M = 31.13, SD = 8.11; non-stressful M = 24.80, SD = 7.27).

References

  • Adams M, Tenney Y, Pew RW (1995) Situation awareness and the cognitive management of complex systems. Hum Factors 37:85–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alliger GM, Tannenbaum SI, Bennett W Jr, Traver H, Shotland A (1997) A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Pers Psychol 50:341–358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen JP, Gustafsberg H (2016) A training method to improve police use of force decision making: a randomized controlled trial. SAGE Open:1–13

  • Andersen JP, Papazoglou K, Arnetz BB, Collins PI (2015) Mental preparedness as a pathway to police resilience and optimal functioning in the line of duty. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience 17(3):624–627

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrabito GR, Leung AS (2014) Combating the impact of stigma on physically inured and mentally ill Canadian armed forces (CAF) members. Canadian Military Journal 14(2):25–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball K, Owsley C, Sloane ME, Roenker DL, Bruni JR (1993) Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes in older drivers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34(11):3110–3123

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes LLB, Harp D, Jung WS (2002) Reliability generalization of scores on the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Educ Psychol Meas 62:603–618

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bechara A, Damasio AR (2005) The somatic marker hypothesis: a neural theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior 52:336–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, H. H. & Waag, W. L. (1995). User observer ratings to assess situational awareness in tactical air environments In D. J. Garland & M. R. Endsley (Eds.), Experimental analysis and measurement of situation awareness (pp. 93–99). Daytona Beach: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Press

  • Berka C, Behneman A, Kintz N, Johnson R, Raphael G (2010) Accelerating training using interactive neuro-educational technologies: applications to archery, golf, and rifle marksmanship. The International Journal of Sport and Society 1:1–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs AT, Cain MS, Mitroff SR (2015) Cognitive training can reduce civilian casualties in a simulated shooting environment. Psychol Sci:1–13

  • Bohm G, Brun W (2008) Intuition and affect in risk perception and decision making. Judgm Decis Mak 3(1):1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer J (2014) Mindfulness in the military. Am J Psychiatr 171(8):803–806

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaparro, A., Groff, L., Tabor, K., Sifrit, K., & Gugerty, L. J. (1999). Maintaining situational awareness: the role of visual attention. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 43rd Annual Meeting, 1343–1346, 43

  • Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. (1994). Perceived stress scale. Retrieved from http://www.mindgarden.com/documents/PerceivedStressScale.pdf.

  • Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R (1983) A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav 24(4):385–396

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, J., Weltman, G., Ratwani, R., Chartrand, D., & McCraty, R. (2010). Stress inoculation through cognitive and biofeedback training. Paper presented at the annual Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Conference

  • Driskell JE, Johnston JH (1998) Stress exposure training. In: Cannon-Bowers JA, Salas E (eds) Making decisions under stress: implications for individual and team training. American Psychological Association Press, Washington, DC, pp 191–217

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Durso FT, Gronlund SD (1999) Situation awareness. In: Durso FT, Nickerson R, Schvaneveldt R, Dumais S, Lindsay S, Chi M (eds) Handbook of applied cognition. Wiley, New York, pp 284–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Endsley, M.R. (1988). Design and evaluation for situation awareness enhancement. In Proceedings of the human factors society 32nd annual meeting, 97–101. Santa Monica, CA

  • Endsley MR (1999) Situation awareness in aviation systems. In: Garland DJ, Wise JA, Hopkin VD (eds) Handbook of aviation human factors. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah

    Google Scholar 

  • Endsley MR (2015) Situation awareness misconceptions and misunderstandings. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 9(1):4–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343415572631

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endsley, M.R., Holder, L.D., Leibrecht, B.C., Garland, D.J., Wampler, R.L., & Matthews, M.D. (2000). Modeling and measuring situation awareness in the infantry operational environment. Report for the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

  • Endsley MR, Jones DG (2012) Designing for situation awareness: an approach to human-centered design, 2nd edn. Taylor & Francis, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Eppley KR, Abrams AI, Shear J (1989) Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychol 45(6):957–974

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan SC, Kotwal RS, Forsten RD (2012) Preparing soldiers for the stress of combat. Journal of Special Operations Medicine 12(2):33–41

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa EB, Dancu CV, Hembree EA, Jaycox LH, Meadows EA, Street GP (1999) A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology 67(2):194–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison KA, Scheinost D, Worhunsky PD, Elwafi HM, Thornhill TA IV et al (2013) Real-time fMRI links subjective experience with brain activity during focused attention. NeuroImage 81:110–118

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greene JC, Caracelli V, Graham W (1989) Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation design. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11:255–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale KS, Stanney KM, Milham LM, Carroll MAB, Jones DL (2009) Multimodal sensory information requirements for enhancing situation awareness and training effectiveness. Theor Issues Ergon Sci 10(3):245–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220902151310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honig A, Lewinski WJ (2008) A survey of the research on human factors related to lethal force encounters: implications for law enforcement training, tactics, and testimony. Law Enforcement Executive Forum 8(4):129–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Hourani LL, Kizakevich PN, Hubal R, Spira J, Strange LB, Holiday DB, Bryant S, McLean AN (2011) Predeployment stress inoculation training for primary prevention of combat-related stress disorders. Journal of CyberTherapy & Rehabilitation 4(1):101–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilnicki S, Wiederhold BK, Maciolek J, Kosinska L, Szymanska S, Zbyszewski M et al (2012) Effectiveness evaluation for short-term group pre-deployment VR computer-assisted stress inoculation training provided by Polish ISAF soldiers. Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine:113–119. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-121-2-113

  • Jha AP, Morrison AB, Dainer-Best J, Parker S, Rostrup N, Stanley EA (2015) Minds “at attention”: mindfulness training curbs attentional lapses in military cohorts. PLoS One:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journalpone.0116889

  • Johnson DC, Thom NJ, Stanley EA, Haase L, Simmons AN, Shih PAB, Thompson WK, Potterat EG, Minor TR, Paulus MP (2014) Modifying resilience mechanisms in at-risk individuals: a controlled study of mindfulness training in marines preparing for deployment. Am J Psychiatr 171(8):844–853

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawaharada M, Yoshioka E, Saijo Y, Fukui T, Ueno T, Kishi R (2009) The effects of a stress inoculation training program for civil servants in Japan: a pilot study of a non-randomized controlled trial. Ind Health 47:173–182

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick DL, Kirkpatrick JD (2006) Evaluating training programs: the four levels, 3rd edn. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San Francisco

    Google Scholar 

  • Koglbauer I, Kallus KW, Braustingl R, Boucsein W (2011) Recovery training in simulator improves performance and psychophysiological state of pilots during simulated and real visual flight rules flight. Int J Aviat Psychol 21(4):307–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/1050841.2011.606741

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee EH (2012) Review of the psychometric evidence of the perceived stress scale. Journal of Asian Nursing Research 6(4):121–127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln YS, Guba EG (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Sage, Beverly Hills

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mace RD, Carroll D (1989) The effect of stress inoculation training on self-reported stress, observer’s rating of stress, heart rate and gymnastics performance. J Sports Sci 7:257–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews MD, Strater LD, Endsley MR (2004) Situation awareness requirements for infantry platoon leaders. Mil Psychol 16(3):149–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClernon CK, McCauley ME, O’Connor PE, Warm JS (2011) Stress training improves performance during a stressful flight. Hum Factors 53(3):207–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720811405317

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum DH (1972) Cognitive modification of test anxious college students. Journal of Clinical and Counseling Psychology 39(2):370–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum DH (1985) Stress inoculation training. Pergamon, Elmsford

    Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum DH (2007) Stress inoculation training: a preventative and treatment approach. In: Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WS (eds) Principles and practice of stress management, 3rd edn. Guilford Press, New York, pp 497–518

    Google Scholar 

  • Mertens DM (2005) Research methods in education and psychology: integrating diversity with quantitative and qualitative approaches, 2nd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrow SL (2005) Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology. J Couns Psychol 52:250–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nazari MA, Querne L, De Broca A, Berquin P (2011) Effectiveness of EEG biofeedback as compared with methylphenidate in the treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a clinical outcome study. Neuroscience & Medicine 2:78–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson GT, Chung IW, Swan PW (2014) Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits: a meta-analysis. J Exp Criminol 10:487–513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pergamin-Hight L, Naim R, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Ijzendoorn MHV, Bar-Haim Y (2015) Content specificity of attention bias to threat in anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 35:10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.10.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prapavessis H, Grove JR, McNair PJ, Cable NT (1992) Self-regulation training, state anxiety, and sport performance: a psychophysiological case study. The Sport Psychologist 6:213–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Randel JM, Pugh HL (1996) Differences in expert and novice situation awareness in naturalistic decision making. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 45:579–597

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson KM, Rothstein H (2008) Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: a meta-analysis. J Occup Health Psychol 12(1):69–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robson S, Manacapilli T (2014) Enhancing performance under stress. Stress inoculation training for battlefield airmen. Rand, Santa Monica

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarter NB, Woods DD (1991) Situation awareness: a critical but ill-defined phenomenon. Int J Aviat Psychol 1(1):45–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, T., Driskell, J.E., Hall, J. & Salas, E. (1996). The effect of stress inoculation training on anxiety and performance. Report for the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

  • Saw AE, Main LC, Gastin \B (2016) Monitoring the athlete training response: subjective self-reported measures trump commonly used objective measures: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med 50:281–291

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soliman AM, Mathna EK (2009) Metacognitive strategy training improves driving situation awareness. Social Behavior and Personality 37(9):1161–1170. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.9.1161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE (1970) Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Steadman, A. C. (2011). Applying neuroscience to enhance tactical leader cognitive performance in combat (Unpublished Masters thesis). U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, KS

  • Tang Y, Posner MI (2009) Attention training and attention state training. Trends Cogn Sci 13(5):222–227

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tenney YJ, Pew RW (2006) Situation awareness catches on: what? So what? Now what? Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics 2:1–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner K, McCarthy VL (2017) Stress and anxiety among nursing students: a review of intervention strategies in literature between 2009 and 2015. Nurse Educ Pract 22:21–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varker T, Devilly GJ (2012) An analogue trial of inoculation/resilience training for emergency services personnel: proof of concept. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 26:696–701

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • What We Do. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2015, from https://www.accentusludus.com/

  • Wickens CD (2008) Situation awareness: review of Mica Endsley’s 1995 articles on situation awareness theory and measurement. Hum Factors 50(3):397–403

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wynne, M. (2013, May 16). Repost: neural-based training for situational awareness (first printed in SWAT Magazine). Retrieved July 21, 2015, from https://marcuswynne.wordpress.com/2013/05/16/neural-based-training-for-situational-awareness-first-printed-in-swat-magazine/

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, MA, USA

    Aminda J. O’Hare

  2. Private Practice, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Amanda Beer

Authors
  1. Aminda J. O’Hare
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amanda Beer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aminda J. O’Hare.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Introductory Protocol

Could we first have you verbally confirm that you are aware that we are recording this conversation and have given us your consent to do so?

We would first like to thank you for the opportunity to speak with you today. As you have been informed, you were selected because of the training you have completed with Marcus Wynne. We are going to go over some logistics before we get started. Is that ok?

We want to remind you that recordings will be kept in a secure location accessible only to researchers on the project. Further, the recording will be destroyed following transcription. We also want to remind you that all information will be held confidential and that you are free to end participation at any time or refrain from answering any questions you are uncomfortable with. Finally, we will do our best not to use your name throughout the remainder of the interview to ensure confidentiality of your responses. If for any reason we slip and use your name it will be replaced with a pseudonym in the transcript.

We have planned this interview to last approximately 30–45 min. Although we have a few specific questions we’d like to ask, this interview is primarily unstructured and informal and many of our questions will evolve from the information that you provide. We will do our best to cover as much as possible in the time allotted.

Do you have any questions about the logistics? We’d like to give you a little more information about the purpose of the interview and then hear from you.

This preliminary research is aimed at exploring training participants’ experiences with training provided by Marcus Wynne. Our goal is to understand the training experience from the participant’s perspective and to utilize this information to help guide further research into the mechanisms impacted by this training. There are no right or wrong answers, and this study is primarily exploratory. We want to encourage you to be as honest as possible, and ensure you that only the themes and data that emerge from these interviews will be shared outside of the primary research team. We greatly appreciate you taking the time to talk with us today.

Do you have any questions before we begin?

figure afigure a

Appendix 2

figure bfigure bfigure bfigure b

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

O’Hare, A.J., Beer, A. A Mixed Method Investigation of Past Trainees’ Perceptions of a Critical Incident Situational Awareness Training Program. J Police Crim Psych 35, 13–34 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9291-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9291-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation