Abstract
In this paper, I explore a possible a/theological response to what Nietzsche called the ‘death of God’—or Hölderlin’s and Heidegger’s ‘flight of the gods’—through a juxtaposition of the Christian-Pauline concept of kenōsis and the ancient Greek-Platonic notion of chōra, and by taking Nishida Kitarō’s appropriations of these concepts as a clue and starting point. Nishida refers to chōra in 1926 to initiate his philosophy of place (basho) and then makes reference to kenōsis in 1945 in his final work that culminates—without necessarily completing—his oeuvre. What he had thereby accomplished is an inversion of Platonism resulting in the collapse of the transcendent/immanent—idea/genesis and by implication the Heaven/Earth—dichotomy. I then unpack the ethical implication of this kenotic chōra Nishida has left us with. It suggests from us a certain response to the desacralization or secularization of the world. I shall build upon this suggestion and unfold its implications by drawing from a variety of sources, starting with Nishida but including others, such as Meister Eckhart, Martin Heidegger, Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas, Gianni Vattimo, Reiner Schürmann, Mark Taylor, Jürgen Moltmann, and other philosophical and theological sources.
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Notes
Japanese personal names will be given in this essay by following the traditional Japanese ordering of family name first followed by the given personal name. Thus in ‘Nishida Kitarō,’ Nishida is the family name and Kitarō is his given name.
All references to Nishida Kitarō’s works are from the latest edition of Nishida Kitarō zenshū (『西田幾多郎全集』; Collected Works of Nishida Kitarō) (Nishida 2001). They will be identified in the text with a Z followed by the volume number and page number.
E.g., Yoteichōwa o tebiki to shite shūkyōtetsugaku e (「予定調和を手引きとして宗教哲学へ」; ‘Toward a Philosophy of Religion with Pre-established Harmony as Guide’) of 1944 and Bashoteki ronri to shūkyōteki sekaikan (「場所的論理と宗教的世界観」; ‘The Logic of Place and the Religious Worldview’) of 1945.
While in Latin absolvere means to be ‘set free,’ ‘make separate,’ in Japanese zettai (絶対) also has the sense of being cut-off from or breaking through (zetsu 絶) opposition (tai 対) (see Z10 315).
The letter is to Mutai Risaku (務台理作) and dated December 22, 1944 (Takemura 2002, 106).
Eckhart, as a Neo-Platonist, certainly does make a subtle distinction here between the nothingness of God as beyond beings (hyper-on) and the nothingness of creatures that is below being. Having pointed this out, Reiner Schürmann, however, adds that Eckhart’s theocentrism collapses in that very nothingness of godhood, wherein God loses his distinct being together with man’s abandonment of his own being, in a ‘double annihilation’ (Schürmann 1978a, 288, 290, 301; 2001, 218, 219).
Nishida also claims that a truly absolute dialectic is to be found not in Hegel but in Mahāyāna philosophy of emptiness found in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras (Z10 317, 399). Elsewhere, Nishida favors Chinese Huyan (華厳) Buddhist patriarch Fazang’s (法藏) doctrine of the non-obstruction of thing-events (shishi wuai 事事無礙) over Hegel’s dialectics (Z9 8). For a more complete discussion of this relationship between Hegel and Nishida, see my book, Nishida Kitarō’s Chiasmatic Chorology (Krummel 2015), especially chapter 8 on their differences.
Dekert here also refers to Meyendorff (1983, 158), who quotes Theodore the Studite, Antirrhetici tres adversus iconomachos, Antirrheticus III, Migne, PG99.396b.
I want to thank here one of my blind reviewers who underscored this point.
Balthasar develops the notion of kenōsis in the context of the Trinity (Moltmann 2001, 140–41). Moltmann refers to Balthasar‘s Mysterium Paschale (Balthasar 1964, 133–326; 1990).
Here Moltmann also refers to Karl Barth’s Church Dogmatics (Barth 1958, 330ff).
Nishida characterizes this self-forming formlessness as a place of absolute nothing while referring to Plato’s notion of chōra. It is interesting to note that Moltmann (2001, 141), when describing the mutual indwelling of Father in Son and Son in Father (as in the Gospel of John ch.14, v.11) or of the moments of the Trinity in one another, uses the term perichoresis with the sense that each term gives for the others an open life-space for their mutual indwelling: each Trinitarian person is room for the other. Perichoresis not doubt is etymologically linked to chōra and it is interesting that this connection between chōra or place and self-negation or kenōsis was noticed by both intellectual traditions, independently of each other. More on chōra below.
She was an advocate of the heretical movement of the Free Spirit and burned at the stake during the Inquisition of 1310.
Nishida also takes this further, citing both Martin Luther and Shinran on this point, that faith as such is not really one’s own working but the working of God within oneself.
I speak here of “conventional Christian theocentrism” rather than “traditional Christian theocentrism” since within what is known as “traditional Christian theology,” there are cases that may not fit the layperson’s conventional understanding of God, such as Thomas Aquinas’ non-entitative understanding of God as pure esse (“to be”) or the non-ontic notions of God belonging to negative theology and the mystical tradition.
Taylor’s reference here to Mahāyāna Buddhist notions is unmistakable.
Lisa McCullough (2000–01, 63–64) argues that this ‘massive transvaluation’ whereby a new criterion of sacrality—a new reverence for this world—dawns with the expunging of God from the political and social order, had already taken place within Christianity itself from the late medieval radical thought of John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham, continuing St. Francis’ this-worldly piety. McCullough sees St. Francis as a revolutionary who served as a prototype for Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. And she adds (65) that even Nietzsche recognized Jesus as one of the great yes-sayers who affirmed life through his sacrifice: ‘Christ on the cross is the most sublime symbol—even today’ (Nietzsche 1967, §219).
See especially chapter VII.
This is not to deny, however, that there are other aspects in Vattimo’s proposal that may seem problematic, such as stressing Christianity nonetheless as the foundation of the laity (e.g., Vattimo 2002, 101).
The term was originally used by the Greek church fathers to describe the relationship between the divine and human natures of Christ and then became extended to mean how the three persons in the Trinity interpenetrate.
Suggestions have been made that chaos as such was the source of Anaximander’s idea of to apeirōn (Kirk, Raven, & Schofield 1983, 41.n.1). And in turn many have noted the similarity of Plato’s chōra to Anaximander’s apeirōn (e.g., El-Bizri 2001, 474).
In Kristeva (1984, 25–28) perhaps this may be comparable to the chōra of the unconscious as the receptacle of prelinguistic traces of experience. And yet this is still a place subordinated to the impression of the ideas as we discussed above. It falls short of the wholly other place, the place of the wholly other that Derrida quotes Heidegger from Was heißt Denken? as suspecting Plato to have fallen short of (Derrida 1992a, 123; Heidegger 1954, 174–75; Heidegger 1968, 227).
Berque (Berque 2002a, 40, 41.n.22, 43.n.24; Berque 2002b, 94, 101.nn.20–21) refers to Pradeau, Brisson, and Boutot, all of whom take chōra as milieu or field of relations, e.g., Pradeau 1995, 396; Boutot 1987, 131, 222; Brisson 1994). Also see Berque 2002a, 32, 38; 2002b, pp. 94–95 on the following.
An example is his 1944 lecture on Heraclitus (Logik. Heraklits Lehre vom Logos) (Heidegger 1979, 335).
See his 1944–45 Zur Eröterung der Gelassenheit (Heidegger 1983b, 47; 1966, 66).
He refers to 865e in Plato’s Laws.
Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis, in John Gray’s words, is “the theory that the Earth is a self-regulating system whose behavior resembles in some ways that of an organism…” (Gray 2003, 32).
The concern of the Standing Rock Sioux tribe of the Lakota people living in the area on the one hand has to do with the dangers of water contamination from the pipeline that would pass through North Dakota’s Lake Oahe that is the major source of drinking water. But they are also bothered by the fact that the pipeline would run through a burial site sacred to the tribe (Bailey 2016; LaPier 2016).
A film directed by Lars von Trier and released in 2011.
Because the biosphere is older and stronger than the human species, Gray argues, for example, that instead of humans killing off life on this planet, it is more likely for them to wreck the environment that sustains them so that large segments of humankind will end up facing much less hospitable climates to be trampled and tossed aside like “straw dogs,” eventually reducing the population back down to pre-plague levels. But he also proclaims that sooner or later man will go extinct and earth will forget the human species and ‘the play of life will go on’ (Gray 2003, 8–9, 11, 12, 34, 151). For some of these claims Gray refers to Reg Morrison, The Spirit in the Gene: Humanity’s Proud Illusion and the Laws of Nature (Morrison 1999).
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Krummel, J.W.M. Kenotic Chorology as A/theology in Nishida and beyond. SOPHIA 58, 255–282 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-018-0698-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-018-0698-x