Abstract
Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS) is a tectonically active region that undergoes continuous geomorphic changes. Large landslides are predominant in this region. A giant landslide called Jiaobunong landslide on the northwestern flank of the EHS were studied and simulated to investigate the formation mechanism, evolutionary process, and failure mechanism of the landside, so that we could better understand the large complex ancient landslides in this region. Field investigation, geological background analyses, and numerical modeling were conducted to reveal the natural and seismic characteristics, as well as dynamic process of the landslide. The results show that the Jiaobunong landslide was the result of long-term geological and geomorphic evolution. Uplift, river incision, weathering, fault creep, glaciation, and earthquakes play key roles in the formation of landslides. Given the huge landslide volume, strong seismicity of the study area, proximity to an active fault, and the need for extra forces to induce landsliding, the Jiaobunong landslide was triggered by a paleo-earthquake. Using numerical simulation based on the discrete element method, the slope dynamic response of the earthquake as well as the mass movement and accumulation process was reproduced. Simulation results showed that the landslide movement experienced four stages: initiation phase (0–5 s), acceleration phase (5–35 s), deceleration phase (35–95 s), and the compaction and self-stabilization stage (after 95 s). The rock mass was disintegrated and experienced strong collisions during the movement. The dammed lake gradually disappeared because of long-term river incision by the overtopping river water. These processes play a vital role in the evolution of landforms in the region of EHS.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bhasin R, Kaynia AM (2004) Static and dynamic simulation of a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway. Eng Geol 71(3–4): 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(03)00135-2
Cao L, Zhang J, Wang Z, et al. (2019) Dynamic response and dynamic failure mode of the slope subjected to earthquake and rainfall. Landslides 16(8): 1467–1482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01179-7
Clark PU, Dyke AS, Shakun JD, et al. (2009) The last glacial maximum. Science 325(5941): 710–714. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172873
Corominas J (1996) The angle of reach as a mobility index for small and large landslides. Can Geotech J 33(2): 260–271. https://doi.org/10.1139/t96-005
Cruden DM (1991) A simple definition of a landslide. B Eng Geol Environ 43(1): 27–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02590167
Delaney KB, Evans SG (2015) The 2000 Yigong landslide (Tibetan Plateau), rockslide-dammed lake and outburst flood: review, remote sensing analysis, and process modelling. Geomorphology 246: 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.06.020
Dong JJ, Tung YH, Chen CC, et al. (2011) Logistic regression model for predicting the failure probability of a landslide dam. Eng Geol 117(1): 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.10.004
Doi I, Kamai T, Azuma R, et al. (2019) A landslide induced by the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake adjacent to tectonic displacement-Generation mechanism and long-term monitoring. Eng Geol 248: 80–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.11.012
Dortch JM, Owen LA, Haneberg WC, et al. (2009) Nature and timing of large landslides in the Himalaya and Transhimalaya of northern India. Quaternary Sci Rev 28(11–12): 1037–1054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.05.002
Du G, Zhang Y, Yang Z, et al. (2017) Estimation of Seismic Landslide Hazard in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis Region of Tibetan Plateau. Acta Geol Sin-Engl 91(2): 658–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.13124
Du TL, Zhang YX, Xie Q, et al. (2006) Effects of rock mass parameters on rock slope deformation. Chin J Geol Hazard Control 17(01): 22–27 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-8035.2006.01.006
Duman TY (2009) The largest landslide dam in Turkey: Tortum landslide. Eng Geol 104(1): 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.08.006
Ermini L, Casagli N (2003) Prediction of the behaviour of landslide dams using a geomorphological dimensionless index. Earth Surf Proc Lan 28(1): 31–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.424
Evans SG, Hungr O, Clague JJ, (2001) Dynamics of the 1984 rock avalanche and associated distal debris flow on Mount Cayley, British Columbia, Canada; implications for landslide hazard assessment on dissected volcanoes. Eng Geol 61(1): 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00118-6
Fan XY, Leng XY, Duan XD (2015) Influence of topographical factors on movement distances of toe-type and turning-type landslides triggered by earthquake. Rock Soil Mech 36(5): 1380–1388. (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2015.05.021
Gallo F, Lavé J (2014) Evolution of a large landslide in the High Himalaya of central Nepal during the last half-century. Geomorphology 223: 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.06.021
Gao G, Meguid MA, Chouinard LE, et al. (2021) Dynamic disintegration processes accompanying transport of an earthquake-induced landslide. Landslides 18(3): 909–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01508-1
GB 50011- 2010 (2016) Code for seismic design of buildings. China Archit & Build Press, Beijing.
Guo CB, Zhang YS, Montgomery DR, et al. (2016) How unusual is the long-runout of the earthquake-triggered giant Luanshibao landslide, Tibetan Plateau, China?. Geomorphology 259: 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.02.013
Han JL (2015). The identification of large-giant bedrock landslides triggered by earthquake in the Longmenshan Tectonic Belt. Acta Geol Sin-Engl 89(2): 681–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.12460
He MC, Xue TH, Peng YF (2001) A new way of determining mechanical parameters of engineering rock masses. Chin J Rock Mech Eng 20(2): 225–229 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-6915.2001.02.017
Hu G, Yi CL, Zhang JF, et al. (2015) Luminescence dating of glacial deposits near the eastern Himalayan syntaxis using different grain-size fractions. Quaternary Sci Rev 124: 124–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.018
Huang R (2008) Geodynamical process and stability control of high rock slope development. Chinese J Rock Mech Eng 27(8): 1525–1544. (In Chinese) https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-6915.2008.08.002
Keefer DK (1984) Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol Soc Am Bull 95(4): 406–421. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<406:LCBE>2.0.CO;2
Kong JM, Zhang XG, Qiang B (2003) Rock lump of landslide of layue destruction feature analysis in Sichuan-Xizhang Highway. J Mt Sci 21(2): 228–233 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-2786.2003.02.015
Korup O (2002) Recent research on landslide dams — a literature review with special attention to New Zealand. Prog Phys Geogr 26:206–235. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133302pp333ra
Korup O, Montgomery DR (2008) Tibetan plateau river incision inhibited by glacial stabilization of the Tsangpo gorge. Nature 455(7214): 786–789. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07322
Korup O, Montgomery DR, Hewitt K (2010) Glacier and landslide feedbacks to topographic relief in the Himalayan syntaxes. P Natl Acad Sci 107(12): 5317–5322. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907531107
Kveldsvik V, Kaynia AM, Nadim F, et al. (2009) Dynamic distinct-element analysis of the 800 m high Aknes rock slope. Int J Rock Mech Min 46(4): 686–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2008.10.007
Larsen IJ, Montgomery DR (2012) Landslide erosion coupled to tectonics and river incision. Nat Geosci 5(7): 468–473. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1479
Li BK, Diao GL, Zou LY, Xu XW, et al. (2014) The redetermination of the source parameters of the big earthquake M 7.7 in the southeast of Lang county in Tibet in 1947. Seismol Geomagnetic Observ Re 35(1): 85–91 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-3246.2014.01/02.017
Li BK, Diao GL, Xu XW, et al. (2015) Redetermination of the source parameters of the Zayü, Tibet M8.6 earthquake sequence in 1950. Chin J Geophys 58(11): 4254–4265 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.6038/cjg20151130
Lin ML, Wang KL. (2006) Seismic slope behavior in a large-scale shaking table model test. Eng Geol 86(2–3): 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.02.011
Liu CZ, Lv JT, Tong LQ, et al. (2019) Research on glacial/rock fall-landslide-debris flows in Sedongpu basin along Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet. Geol China 46(2): 219–234. (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.12029/gc20190201
Legros F (2002) The mobility of long-runout landslides. Eng Geol 63(3–4): 301–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(01)00090-4
Luo G, Hu X, Gu C, et al. (2012) Numerical simulations of kinetic formation mechanism of Tangjiashan landslide. J Rock Mech Geotech 4(2): 149–159. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1235.2012.00149
Lv Q, Liu Y, Yang Q (2017) Stability analysis of earthquake-induced rock slope based on back analysis of shear strength parameters of rock mass. Eng Geol 228: 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.07.007
Itasca (1999) Universal distinct element code user’s manual. Itasca Consult Group Inc, Minneapolis.
Pal S, Kaynia AM, Bhasin RK, et al. (2012) Earthquake stability analysis of rock slopes: a case study. Rock Mech Rock Eng45(2): 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-011-0145-6
Pinto L, Hérail G, Sepúlveda SA, et al. (2008) A Neogene giant landslide in Tarapacá, northern Chile: A signal of instability of the westernmost Altiplano and palaeoseismicity effects. Geomorphology 102(3–4): 532–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.05.044
Scheidegger AE (1973) On the prediction of the reach and velocity of catastrophic landslides. Rock Mech 5(4): 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01301796
Shang Y, Yang Z, Li L, et al. (2003) A super-large landslide in Tibet in 2000: background, occurrence, disaster, and origin. Geomorphology 54(3): 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00358-6
Shang Y, Yang Z, Yuan G, et al. (2010) Geohazards development and distribution along Sichuan-Tibet Highway in North of the Grand Canyon of Yarlu-Tsangpo. China Railway Publ House, Beijing. (In Chinese)
Shao CR, You HC, Cao ZQ, et al. (2008) Tectonic Characteristics and Seismic Activities of Yaluzangbu Grand Canyon, Tibet, China. Tech Earthq Disaster Preve 12(4): 398–412. (In Chinese) https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.902420109
Singh M, Rao K S. (2005) Empirical methods to estimate the strength of jointed rock masses. Eng Geol 77(1–2): 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.09.001
Song D, Che A, Chen Z, et al. (2018) Seismic stability of a rock slope with discontinuities under rapid water drawdown and earthquakes in large-scale shaking table tests. Eng Geol 245: 153–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.08.011
Tanay DG, Federica R, Sujit D, et al. (2015) Kinematics and strain rates of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis from new GPS campaigns in Northeast India. Tectonophysics 655: 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.04.017
Wang G (2015) Geoheritage features in Xi’an, China: Cuihua rock avalanche likely originating from an ancient earthquake. Geoheritage 7(3): 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-014-0132-x
Wang H, Cui P, Liu D, et al. (2019) Evolution of a landslide-dammed lake on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau and its influence on river longitudinal profiles. Geomorphology 343: 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.06.023
Wang PQ, Xu GT, He Q. (2013) Analysis on the causes of typical geological disasters in the southeastern Tibet and its prevention technology. J Tibet Univ 28(1): 22–26 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.16249/j.cnki.54-1034/c.2013.01.002
Wang H, Liu S, Xu W, et al. (2020) Numerical investigation on the sliding process and deposit feature of an earthquake-induced landslide: a case study. Landslides 17(11): 2671–2682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01446-y
Xu WJ, Chen ZY, He BS, et al. (2010) Research on river-blocking mechanism of XiaojiaQiao landslide and disasters of chain effects. Chin J Mech Eng 29(5): 933–942 (In Chinese).
Xu Z, Ji S, Cai Z, et al. (2012) Kinematics and dynamics of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis, eastern Himalaya: Constraints from deformation, fabrics and geochronology. Gondwana Res 21(1): 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2011.06.010
Yang D, Chen XQ, Huang Y, et al. (2020) Study on the development characteristics and formation mechanism of the Jiao Bunong Giant Ancient Landslide in Yajiang Suture Zone. Railway Stand Des 65(3): 1–9 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.13238/j.issn.1004-2954.202004160002
Ye HL, Zheng Y, Li A, et al. (2012) Shaking table tests on stabilizing piles of slopes under earthquakes. Chin J Geotech Eng 34(2): 251–257 (In Chinese).
Yin YP, Wang M, Li B, et al. (2012) Dynamic response characteristics of Daguangbao landslide triggered by Wenchuan earthquake. Chin J Rock Mech Eng 31(10): 1969–1982 (In Chinese). https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-6915.2012.10.003
Zhang J, Ji J, Zhong D, et al. (2004). Structural pattern of eastern Himalayan syntaxis in Namjagbarwa and its formation process. Sci China Ser D: Earth Sci 47(2): 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1360/02yd0042
Zhang Y, Guo C, Lan H, et al. (2015) Reactivation mechanism of ancient giant landslides in the tectonically active zone: a case study in Southwest China. Environ Earth Sci 74(2): 1719–1729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4180-6
Zhang Z, Wang T, Wu S, et al. (2016) Rock toppling failure mode influenced by local response to earthquakes. B Eng Geol Environ 75(4): 1361–1375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0806-x
Zhou J, Cui P, Hao M (2016) Comprehensive analyses of the initiation and entrainment processes of the 2000 Yigong catastrophic landslide in Tibet, China. Landslides 13(1): 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-0553-2
Zhou J, Cui P, Yang X (2013) Dynamic process analysis for the initiation and movement of the Donghekou landslide-debris flow triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake. J Asian Earth Sci 76: 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.08.007
Zhu Y, Dai F, Yao X, et al. (2019) Field investigation and numerical simulation of the seismic triggering mechanism of the Tahman landslide in eastern Pamir, Northwest China. B Eng Geol Environ 78(8): 5795–5809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01541-y
Zou Z, Lei D, Jiang G, et al. (2020) Experimental study of bridge foundation reinforced with front and back rows of anti-slide piles on gravel soil slope under El Centro waves. Appl Sci 10(9): 3108. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093108
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by the Nation Natural Science Foundation of China (41941017, 41807231and 41731287).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Du, Gl., Zhang, Ys., Yao, X. et al. Field investigations and numerical modeling of a giant landslide in the region of Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis: Jiaobunong landslide. J. Mt. Sci. 18, 3230–3246 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6617-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6617-y