Abstract
The aim of this repeated measures study was to examine an anonymous student feedback system (delivered using clickers) versus a public student feedback system (delivered using flashcards) on 52 graduate learners’ metacognition and academic achievement scores. Three dimensions of metacognition were examined in a large lecture setting, including Metacognitive Learning Device Attribution, Metacognitive Knowledge in Lectures, and Metacognitive Self-Regulation. Results indicated that Metacognitive Learning Device Attribution and Metacognitive Knowledge in Lectures were significantly higher in the anonymous feedback condition as hypothesized while, contrary to our hypothesis, difference in Metacognitive Self-Regulation was not significant. Also, academic achievement differences were highly significant in favor of the anonymous feedback condition. Effect sizes for the three significant dependent variables ranged from moderate to very large with the largest effect size found for academic achievement. Findings are discussed in terms of the existing literature and the study’s internal and external validity. Recommendations for future research are made.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
*Meta-analysis
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., et al. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, abridged edition. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Anthis, K. (2011). Is it the clicker, or is it the question? Untangling the effects of student feedback system use. Teaching of Psychology, 38(3), 189–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628311411895.
Aronson, E. (2008). The social animal (pp. 2–57). New York: Worth Publishing.
Artino Jr, A. R. (2005). Review of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Online Submission. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED499083.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1.
Beatty, I. D., Grace, W. J., Leonard, W. J., & Dufense, R. J. (2006). Designing effective questions for classroom response systems teaching. American Journal of Physics, 74(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2121753.
Becker, S. A., Brown, M., Dahlstrom, E., Davis, A., DePaul, K., Diaz, V., et al. (2018). NMC horizon report: 2018 higher (Education ed.). Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Becker, S. A., Freeman, A., Hall, C. G., Cummins, M., & Yuhnke, B. (2016). NMC/CoSN horizon report: 2016 K-12 edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Berns, G. S., Chappelow, J., Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M. E., & Richards, J. (2005). Neurobiological correlates of social conformity and independence during mental rotation. Biological Psychiatry, 58(3), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.012.
Blasco-Arcas, L., Buil, I., Hernández-Ortega, B., & Sese, F. J. (2013). Using clickers in class. The role of interactivity, active collaborative learning and engagement in learning performance. Computers & Education, 62, 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.019.
Brady, M., & Forest, C. (2018). Metacognition, formative assessment, and student perspective: Learning about metacognition through in-class comparison of response systems. Journal of Physician Assistant Education., 29(2), 104–108.
Brady, M., Rosenthal, J., & Forest, C. (2015). The Effect of Audience Response Systems on Metacognition in Graduate Students: A two-year mixed methods study. Paper presented at the international conference on Innovations in Medical Education 2015, Los Angeles, CA. Abstract retrieved from http://keck.usc.edu/medical-education/ime-conference-2018/ime-conference-past-proceedings/.
Brady, M. L., Seli, H., & Rosenthal, J. (2013a). “Clickers” and metacognition: A quasi-experimental comparative study about metacognitive self-regulation and use of electronic feedback devices. Computers & Education, 65(2013), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.001.
Brady, M. L., Seli, H., & Rosenthal, J. (2013b). Metacognition and the influence of polling systems: How do clickers compare with low technology systems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(6), 885–902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-013-9318-1.
Caldwell, J. E. (2007). Clickers in the large classroom: Current research and best-practice tips. Life Sciences Education, 6, 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.06-12-0205.
Campbell, D. T. (1957). Factors relevant to the validity of experiments in social settings. Psychological Bulletin, 54, 297–312.
Castillo-Manzano, J. I., Castro-Nuño, M., López-Valpuesta, L., Sanz-Díaz, M. T., & Yñiguez, R. (2016). Measuring the effect of ARS on academic performance: A global meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 96, 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.02.007.
Chen, J. C., Whittinghill, D. C., & Kadlowec, J. A. (2010). Classes that click: Fast, rich feedback to enhance students’ learning and satisfaction. Journal of Engineering Education, 99(2), 158–169.
Chien, Y. T., Chang, Y. H., & Chang, C. Y. (2016). Do we click in the right way? A meta-analytic review of clicker-integrated instruction. Educational Research Review, 17, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.10.003.
Cleary, A. M. (2008). Using wireless feedback systems to replicate behavioral research findings in the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 42–44. https://doi.org/10.10180/00986280701826642.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum.
*de Boer, H., Donker, A. S., Kostons, D. D., & van der Werf, G. P. (2018). Long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on student academic performance: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review., 24, 98–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.03.002.
De Corte, E., Verschaffel, L., & Masui, C. (2004). The CLIA-model: A framework for designing powerful learning environments for thinking and problem solving. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 19(4), 365–384.
Duncan, D. (2006). Clickers: A new teaching aid with exceptional promise. Astronomy Education Review, 5(1), 1–19.
Formative Assessment for Students and Teachers (FAST) State Collaborative on Assessment and Student Standards (SCASS). (2008). Attributes of effective formative assessment. Paper prepared for the formative assessment for teachers and students state collaborative on assessment and student standards of the council of chief state school officers. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Han, J. H. (2014). Closing the missing links and opening the relationships among the factors: A literature review on the use of clicker technology using the 3P model. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 150–168.
*Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Abingdon: Routledge.
Heaslip, G., Donovan, P., & Cullen, J. G. (2014). Student response systems and learner engagement in large classes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 15(1), 11–24.
Heritage, M. (2010). Formative assessment and next-generation assessment systems: Are we losing an opportunity? Council of Chief State School Officers. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED543063.pdf.
Hoekstra, A. (2008). Vibrant student voices: Exploring effects of the use of clickers in large college courses. Learning, Media and Technology, 33(4), 329–341.
Hooker, J. F., Denker, K. J., Summers, M. E., & Parker, M. (2016). The development and validation of the student response system benefit scale. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(2), 120–127.
Hunsu, N. J., Adesope, O., & Bayly, D. J. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of audience response systems (clicker-based technologies) on cognition and affect. Computers & Education, 94, 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.013.
Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Christodoulou, J. C. (2014). Neuroscientific contributions to understanding and measuring emotions in educational contexts. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), Handbook of emotions in education (pp. 617–634). New York: Taylor and Francis/Routledge.
Johnson, L., Becker, S. A., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Hall, C. (2016). NMC horizon report: 2016 higher education edition (pp. 1–50). Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Kay, R. H., & LeSage, A. (2009). Examining the benefits and challenges of using audience response systems: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, 53(3), 819–827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.001.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2.
Lantz, M. E. (2010). The use of ‘clickers’ in the classroom: Teaching innovation or merely an amusing novelty? Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 556–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.02.014.
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Mayer, R. E. (2011). Applying the science of learning. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Mayer, R. E., Stull, A., DeLeeuw, K., Almeroth, K., Bimber, B., Chun, D., et al. (2009). Clickers in college classrooms: Fostering learning with questioning methods in large lecture classes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.04.002.
Mazur, E. (1991). Peer instruction: A user’s manual. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Meltzer, D. E., & Manivannan, K. (2002). Transforming the lecture-hall environment: The fully interactive physics lecture. American Journal of Physics, 70(6), 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X09353890.
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249.
Mollborn, S., & Hoekstra, A. (2010). “A meeting of minds” using clickers for critical thinking and discussion in large sociology classes. Teaching Sociology, 38(1), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X09353890.
Pintrich, P. R. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_3.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Education and Psychological Measures, 53, 801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053003024.
Pintrich, P. R., Wolters, C. A., & Baxter, G. P. (2000). Assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning. In G. Schraw & J. C. Impara (Eds.), Issues in the measurement of metacognition (pp. 43–97). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Rocca, K. A. (2010). Student participation in the college classroom: An extended multidisciplinary literature review. Communication Education, 59(2), 185–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520903505936.
Schell, J., Lukoff, B., & Mazur, E. (2013). Catalyzing learner engagement using cutting-edge classroom response systems in higher education. In C. Wankel & P. Blessinger (Eds.), Increasing student engagement and retention using classroom technologies: Classroom Response Systems and Mediated Discourse Technologies (pp. 233–261). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Schraw, G., & Gutierrez, A. P. (2015). Metacognitive strategy instruction that highlights the role of monitoring and control processes. In Metacognition: Fundaments, applications, and trends (pp. 3–16). Cham: Springer.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Shunk, D. H. (2005). Self-regulated learning: The educational legacy of Paul R. Pintrich. Educational Psychologist, 40(2), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4002_3.
Stowell, J. R. (2015). Use of clickers vs. mobile devices for classroom polling. Computers & Education, 82, 329–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.12.008.
Stowell, J. R., & Nelson, J. M. (2007). Benefits of electronic audience feedback systems on student participation, learning, and emotion. Teaching of Psychology, 34(4), 253–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280701700391.
Stowell, J. R., Oldham, T., & Bennett, D. (2010). Using student feedback systems (“clickers”) to combat conformity and shyness. Teaching of Psychology, 37(2), 135–140.
Thorndike, E. L. (1913–1914). Educational psychology. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College.
Van Diik, L., Van Der Berg, G., & Van Keulen, H. (2001). Interactive lectures in engineering education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 26, 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043790123124.
Watkins, J., & Mazur, E. (2013). Retaining students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 36–41.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brady, M., Rosenthal, J.L., Forest, C.P. et al. Anonymous versus public student feedback systems: metacognition and achievement with graduate learners. Education Tech Research Dev 68, 2853–2872 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09800-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09800-6