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A meta-analysis of wearables research in educational settings published 2016–2019

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Abstract

The integration of wearables in education environments to enhance teaching and learning is an emerging area of research. However, many studies lack the rigor of formal research designs and results are inconclusive. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the overall effect of wearable use on learning and motivation outcomes and describe the characteristics of the studies that comprise the body of quantitative wearables research. Searches for wearables research were conducted in three databases resulting in 144 results with duplicates removed. Coding based on specific inclusion criteria resulted in 12 studies with 20 effect sizes published between January 2016 and August 2019. The overall weighted mean effect size for 20 learning and motivation outcomes was .6373 (SE = .1622). It should be noted that while this result was statistically significant (z = 3.9292, p = .0001) with 95% CI [.3194, 9552], the heterogeneity was also statistically significant. Additional weighted mean effect sizes relating to study characteristics were significant while meeting the assumption of homogeneity. A discussion of the findings, implications, and limitations are provided.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Instructional Design and Technology, College of Education and Professional Studies, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy Bldg 78/117E, Pensacola, FL, 32514, USA

    Byron Havard

  2. Center for Online Innovation & Production, University of Florida, 2046 NE Waldo Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32609, USA

    Megan Podsiad

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Correspondence to Byron Havard.

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Appendix

Appendix

Field parameters for codebook

Study ID

Uniquely identifies a study; first author’s last name and year

Coder

The individual who coded the entry

Publication type

Publication type “1 Journal article, 2 Book chapter, 3 Dissertation, 4 Conference proceeding, 5 Technical report, 6 Other, 7 Unknown”

Published date

Publication date “1 2016, 2 2017, 3 2018, 4 2019”

Study information

 

 Continent

The continent where study was conducted “1 North America, 2 South America, 3 Asia, 4 Africa, 5 Australia, 6 Europe, 7 Antarctica”

 Study environment

Study environment “1 K-12, 2 Higher Education, 3 Business/Industry/Military, 4 Healthcare, 5 Other (type in), 6 More than one (type in)”

 Participant age

Age(s) of participants “1 Adults 25 + , 2 Adults 18–24, 3 Minors < 18, 4 Adults 65 + , 5 More than one (type in”

 Participant gender

Gender of participants “1 Mixed, 2 Male, 3 Female”

 Pedagogical strategies

The pedagogical strategies used within the study conducted “1 Problem-based, 2 Project-based/Collaborative, 3 Game-based, 4 Task-based, 5 None, 6 Other (Type in)”

 Wearables

Type of wearable(s) used in the study “1 Implantables, 2 Smartwatches, 3 Smart Jewelry, 4 Fitness Trackers, 5 Smart Clothing, 6 Head-Mounted Displays, 7 Health Related Devices, 8 Sensors, 9 Other (type in), 10 More than one (type in)”

Method quality

 

 Selection bias

Systematic differences between groups at baseline “1 Low risk, 2 High risk, 3 Unclear risk”

 Performance bias

Something other than the intervention affects groups differently (blinding of participants) “1 Low risk, 2 High risk, 3 Unclear risk”

 Attrition bias

Participant loss affects initial group comparability “1 Low risk, 2 High risk, 3 Unclear risk”

 Detection bias

Method of outcome assessment affects group comparisons (blinding of data collectors) “1 Low risk, 2 High risk, 3 Unclear risk”

 Reporting bias

Selective reporting of outcomes “1 Low risk, 2 High risk, 3 Unclear risk”

 Reliability provided

Was reliability assessed? “1 Yes, 2 No”

 Validity provided

Was validity assessed? “1 Yes, 2 No”

Design

 

 Research design

Study design “1 Two-group pretest–posttest, 2 Two-group posttest, 3 One-group pretest–posttest, 4 One-group posttest, 5 Unclear, 6 Other (type in)”

 Time relative to treatment

Time after treatment was measured “1 Immediately, 2 Days, 3 Over one week”

 Sample assignment

Type of sample assignment “1 Individual, 2 Group, 3 Program area, 4 Unclear”

 Sample design

Type of sampling “1 Random, 2 Matching, 3 Convenience, 4 Quota, 5 Other (type in)”

Sample size

 

 Total sample size

Total reported sample size “type in”

 Treatment sample size

Total reported treatment sample size “type in”

 Control sample size

Total reported control sample size “type in”

Outcomes

 

 Outcome measured

The outcome measured in the study “1 Cognitive, 2 Affective, 3 Psychomotor, 4 Motivation, 5 Engagement, 6 Support/Performance, 7 Functionality/Design Evolution, 8 Evaluation, 9 Applications, 10 Other (type in)”

 Construct

The construct(s) used in this study “type in”

 Measure scale

The measurement scale of the outcome “1 Continuous, 2 Discrete, 3 Ordinal, 4 Nominal, 5 Other (type in)”

 Effect size

The effect size of outcome, if reported “type in”

Exclusion

 

 Reason for exclusion

The reason the publication is excluded from this meta-analysis “1 Insufficient data to calculate effect size, 2 High risk of bias, 3 Wearable application unclear, 4 Other (type in)”

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Havard, B., Podsiad, M. A meta-analysis of wearables research in educational settings published 2016–2019. Education Tech Research Dev 68, 1829–1854 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09789-y

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