Abstract
This study enabled the assessment of indoor CO2 levels and evaluated the relationship between occupancy numbers with CO2 levels in a Taiwan hospital. The measurements were conducted over four seasons for five working days (Monday to Friday), with sampling conducted simultaneously from 09:00 am to 5:00 pm and across six locations (for spatial variability): hall (H), registration and cashier (RC), waiting area (WA), occupational therapy room (OT), physical therapy room (PT), and outdoors (O). Based on the analysis, three of the five indoor sampling sites showed significant differences in seasonal CO2 concentrations (p < 0.0001). Based on our result, the physical therapy room had the highest level of CO2 concentration that exceeded the IAQ standard in Taiwan Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in all seasons, in that the number of occupants contributing to nearly 40% of the variation in CO2 measured. Our results also showed that the indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of CO2 concentration for all locations and seasons exceeded 1 in ~ 100% of those locations. The median I/O ratio at sites WA and OT was 2.37 and 2.08 during four seasons, respectively. The highest median I/O ratio was found at site PT, with a calculated range of 2.69 in spring to 3.90 in fall. The highest correlation of occupancy number and CO2 concentration also occurred in PT which correlation coefficients were estimated at 0.47, 0.65, 0.63, and 0.40 in spring, summer, fall, and winter. The findings of the present study can be used to understand occupancy number and its effect on CO2 levels in a hospital environment, as well as the effect of time of day (Monday to Friday) on the number of patients admitted.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Rashidi K, Loveday D, Al-Mutawa (2012) Impact of ventilation modes on carbon dioxide concentration levels in Kuwait classrooms. Energ Buildings 47:540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.030
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (2016) https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/standards-and-guidelines/read-only-versions-of-ashrae-standards. Accessed 20 Nov 2017
Apte MG, Fisk WJ, Daisey JM (2000) Associations between indoor CO2 concentrations and sick building syndrome symptoms in U.S. office buildings: an analysis of the 1994-1996 BASE study data. Indoor Air 10:246–257. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0668.2000.010004246.x
ASTM (2012) ASTM Standard D6245–12, Standard guide for using indoor carbon dioxide concentrations to evaluate indoor air quality and ventilation. American Society for Testing and Materials. West Conshohocken, PA, USA
Braniš M, Řezáčová P, Domasová M (2005) The effect of outdoor air and indoor human activity on mass concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 in a classroom. Environ Res 99:143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2004.12.001
Chen C, Zhao B (2011) Review of relationship between indoor and outdoor particles: I/O ratio, infiltration factor and penetration factor. Atmos Environ 45:275–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.09.048
Chen YY, Sung FC, Chen ML, Mao IF, Lu CY (2016) Indoor air quality in the metro system in north Taiwan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13:1200. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13121200
Dedesko S, Stephens B, Gilbert JA, Siegel JA (2015) Methods to assess human occupancy and occupant activity in hospital patient rooms. Build Environ 90:136–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.03.029
Duong A, Steinmaus C, McHale CM, Vaughan CP, Zhang L (2011) Reproductive and developmental toxicity of formaldehyde: a systematic review. Mutat Res 728:118–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.07.003
Gladyszewska-Fiedoruk K, Krawczyk DA (2014) The possibilities of energy consumption reduction and a maintenance of indoor air quality in doctor’s offices located in north-eastern Poland. Energ Buildings 85:235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.08.041
Groves-Kirkby CJ, Denman AR, Campbell J, Crockett RGM, Phillips PS, Rogers S (2016) Is environmental radon gas associated with the incidence of neurodegenerative conditions? A retrospective study of multiple sclerosis in radon affected areas in England and Wales. J Environ Radioact 154:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2015.12.003
He C, Mackey IM, Ramsay K, Liang Z, Kidd T, Knibbs LD, Johnson G, McNeale D, Stockwell R, Coulthard MG, Long DA, Williams TJ, Duchaine C, Smith N, Wainwright C, Morawska L (2017) Particle and bioaerosol characteristics in a paediatric intensive care unit. Environ Int 107:89–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.06.020
Hsu YC, Kung PY, Wu TN, Shen YH (2012) Characterization of indoor air bioaerosols in southern Taiwan. Aerosol Air Qual Res 12:651–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2018.11.021
Jung CC, Wu PC, Tseng CH, Su HJ (2015) Indoor air quality varies with ventilation types and working areas in hospitals. Build Environ 85:190–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.11.026
Kung PY, Wang YT, Chiu JC, Hsu YC, Wu TN, Shen YH, Wen SB (2011) Comparison of indoor air quality measurement by using direct detection apparatus and standard methods. Adv Mater Res 230(232):905–909. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.230-232.905
Li R, Fu H, Hu Q, Li C, Zhang L, Chen J, Mellouki AW (2017) Physiochemical characteristics of aerosol particle in the typical microenvironment of hospital in Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 580:651–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.011
Loupa G, Zarogianni AM, Karali D, Kosmadakis I, Rapsomanikis S (2016) Indoor/outdoor PM2.5 elemental composition and organic fraction medications, in a Greek hospital. Sci Total Environ 550:727–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.070
Madureira J, Paciencia I, Rufo J, Ramos E, Barros H, Teixeira JP, de O Fernandes E (2015) Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children’s respiratory symptoms. Atmos Environ 118:145–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.07.028
Mendes A, Papoila AL, Carrero-Martins P, Bonassi S, Caires I, Palmeiro T, Aguiar L, Pereira C, Neves P, Mendes D, Botelho MA, Neuparth N, Teixeira JP (2016) The impact of indoor air quality and contaminants on respiratory health of older people living in long-term care residences in Porto. Age Ageing 45:136–142. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afv157
Norbäck D, Nordstrom K, Zhao Z (2013) Carbon dioxide (CO2) demand-controlled ventilation in university computer classrooms and possible effects on headache, fatigue and perceived indoor environment: an intervention study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 86:199–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0756-6
Peng Z, Deng W, Tenorio R (2017) Investigation of indoor air quality and the identification of influential factors at primary schools in the North of China. Sustainability 9:1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9071180
Pereira LD, Raimondo D, Corgnati SP, de Silva MG (2014) Assessment of indoor air quality and thermal comfort in Portugues secondary classrooms: methodology and results. Build Environ 81:69–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.06.008
Ramos CA, Wolterbeek HT, Almeida SM (2014) Exposure to indoor air pollutants during physical activity in fitness centers. Build Environ 82:349–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.08.026
Ramos T, Dedesko S, Siegel JA, Gilbert JA, Stephens B (2015) Spatial and temporal variations in indoor environmental conditions, human occupancy, and operational characteristics in a new hospital building. PLoS One 10:e0118207. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118207
Razali NYY, Latif MT, Doreena D, Mohamad N, Sulaiman FR, Srithawirat T (2015) Concentration of particulate matter, CO and CO2 in selected schools in Malaysia. Build Environ 87:108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.01.015
Rudnick SN, Milton DK (2003) Risk of indoor airborne infection transmission estimated from carbon dioxide concentration. Indoor Air 13:237–245. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0668.2003.00189.x
Satish U, Mendell MJ, Shekhar K, Hotchi T, Sullivan D, Streufert S, Fisk JW (2012) Is CO2 an indoor pollutant? Direct effects of low-to-moderate CO2 concentrations on human decision-making performance. Environ Health Perspect 120:1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104789
Sautour M, Sixt N, Dalle F, L'Ollivier C, Fourquenet V, Calinon C, Paul K, Valvin S, Maurel A, Aho S, Couillault G, Cachia C, Vagner O, Cuisenier B, Caillot D, Bonnin A (2009) Profiles and seasonal distribution of airborne fungi in indoor and outdoor environments at a French hospital. Sci Total Environ 407:3766–3771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.02.024
Siskos PA, Bouba KE, Stroubou AP (2001) Determination of selected pollutants and measurement of physical parameters for the evaluation of indoor air quality in school buildings in Athens, Greece. Indoor Built Environ 5:185–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X0101000311
Slezakova K, Peixoto C, Pereira MDC, Morais S (2018) Indoor air quality in health clubs: impact of occupancy and type of performed activities on exposure levels. J Hazard Mater 359:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.07.015
Smielowska M, Marc M, Zabiegala B (2017) Indoor air quality in public utility environments-a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:11166–11176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8567-7
Spengler JD, McCarthy JF, Samet JM (2001) Indoor Air Quality Handbook, McGRAM-HILL, New York, San Francisco, Washington, DC, Auckland, Bogota, Caracas, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Milan, Montreal, New Delhi, San Juan, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto
Taiwan Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Available on 17th November, (2017) http://iaq.epa.gov.tw/indoorair/page/News_12_1.aspx
Tran DT, Alleman LY, Coddeville P, Galloo JC (2014) Indoor-outdoor behavior and sources of size-resolved airborne particles in French classrooms. Build Environ 81:183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.06.023
Turanjanin V, Vučićević B, Jovanović M, Mirkov N, Lazović I (2014) Indoor CO2 measurements in Serbian schools and ventilation rate calculation. Energy 77:290–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.028
Verde SC, Almeida SM, Matos J, Guerreiro D, Meneses M, Faria T, Botelho D, Santos M, Viegas C (2015) Microbiological assessment of indoor air quality at different hospital sites. Res Microbiol 166:557–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2015.03.004
Wang W, Song M, Guo M, Chi C, Mo F, Shen X (2015) Pollution levels and characteristics of phthalate esters in indoor air in hospital. J Environ Sci 37:67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2015.02.016
Zhou Q, Lyu Z, Qian H, Song J, Möbs VC (2015) Field-measurement of CO2 level in general hospital wards in Nanjing. Procedia Eng 121:52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.1018
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Yuan Rung Hospital for their willingness to provide us the study area.
Funding
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of China under Grant MOST 107-2313-B-040-001.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Y.C. (Yi-Chen) conducted the experiments and W.C. (Wen-Chang) performed the statistical analysis; N.H. (Nan-Hung) and S.C. (Szu-Chieh) wrote the paper.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Research involving human participants and animal rights
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Ethical Committee of Chung Shan Medical University (CSMUH No: CS16072).
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 237 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, YC., Tseng, WC., Hsieh, NH. et al. Assessing the seasonality of occupancy number-associated CO2 level in a Taiwan hospital. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26, 16422–16432 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05084-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05084-3