Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Animus toward Muslims and its association with public support for punitive counter-terrorism policies: did the Christchurch terrorist attack mitigate this association?

  • Published:
Journal of Experimental Criminology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objectives

We apply Unnever and Cullen’s (2010) Racial Animus Model to examine support for punitive counter-terrorism policies before and after the 2019 Christchurch terrorist attack.

Methods

We utilize a natural experiment of survey data from Australians before (n = 1191) and after (n = 1344) the attack. Both surveys included a between-groups vignette describing a terrorist as either a right-wing or Islamic extremist. We examined if support for counter-terrorism policies differed between the two conditions and two surveys. We tested whether perceiving Muslims as threatening predicted support for punitive policies, and if the attack mitigated this association.

Results

Participants were more supportive of punitive policies when a terrorist was motivated by Islamic extremism, but only in the pre-Christchurch sample. Those who perceived Muslims as threatening were more supportive of such policies, but this association was weaker among post-Christchurch participants.

Conclusions

Results support the Racial Animus Model and suggest that empathy might play a role in weakening anti-Muslim animus.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrams, D., Van de Vyver, J., Houston, D. M., & Vasiljevic, M. (2017). Does terror defeat contact? Intergroup contact and prejudice toward Muslims before and after the London bombings. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 23(3), 260–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). 2016 Census. http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/2016. Accessed 30 Mar 2020.

  • Baker, N. (2019). Outrage as Fraser Anning blames NZ attacks on ‘Muslim immigration’. SBS News. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/outrage-as-fraser-anning-blames-nz-attacks-on-muslim-immigration. Accessed 12 Jun 2020

  • Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, M. P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., Klein, T. R., & Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battersby, J., & Ball, R. (2019). Christchurch in the context of New Zealand terrorism and right-wing extremism. Journal of policing, intelligence and counter terrorism, 14(3), 191–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackbourn, J., McGarrity, N., & Roach, K. (2019). Understanding and responding to right wing terrorism. Journal of policing, intelligence and counter terrorism, 14(3), 183–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blumer, H. (1958). Race prejudice as a sense of group position. The Pacific Sociological Review, 1(1), 3–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braddock, K., & Horgan, J. (2016). Towards a guide for constructing and disseminating counternarratives to reduce support for terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39(5), 381–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braddock, K., & Morrison, J. F. (2020). Cultivating trust and perceptions of source credibility in online counternarratives intended to reduce support for terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(6), 468–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breen-Smyth, M. (2014). Theorising the “suspect community”: counterterrorism, security practices and the public imagination. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7(2), 223–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, M., & Rane, H. (2019). Beyond faith: social marginalisation and the prevention of radicalisation among young Muslim Australians. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 12(2), 273–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherney, A., & Murphy, K. (2016). Being a suspect community in a post 9/11 world: the impact of the war on terror on Muslim communities in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 49(4), 480–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiricos, T., Welch, K., & Gertz, M. (2004). Racial typification of crime and support for punitive measures. Criminology, 42(2), 358–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, D., Dobrowolsky, A., Keeble, E., Moncayo, C. C., & Tastsoglou, E. (2007). Security and Immigration, Changes and Challenges: Immigrant and Ethnic Communities in Atlantic Canada, Presumed Guilty? https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265032032_Security_and_Immigration_Changes_and_Challenges_Immigrant_and_Ethnic_Communities_in_Atlantic_Canada_Presumed_Guilty. Accessed 20 Aug 2019.

  • Faist, T. (2002). ‘Extension du domaine de la lutte’: International migration and security before and after September 11, 2001. International Migration Review, 36(1), 7–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finlay, K. A., & Stephan, W. G. (2000). Improving intergroup relations: the effects of empathy on racial attitudes 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(8), 1720–1737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-McLay, C. (2020). ‘Our safety is a concern’: fears endure among Muslims after Christchurch attacks. In The Guardian Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/13/our-safety-is-a-concern-fears-endure-among-muslims-after-christchurch-attacks. Accessed 12 Jun 2020.

  • Huq, A., Tyler, T., & Schulhofer, S. (2011). Mechanisms for eliciting cooperation in counterterrorism policing: evidence from the United Kingdom. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 8(4), 728–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, D., & Carmichael, J. T. (2002). The political sociology of the death penalty: a pooled time-series analysis. American Sociological Review, 67(1), 109–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonathan-Zamir, T., & Weisburd, D. (2013). The effects of security threats on antecedents of police legitimacy: findings from a quasi-experiment in Israel. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(1), 3–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, R. D., & Wheelock, D. (2007). Group threat and social control: race, perceptions of minorities and the desire to punish. Social Forces, 85(3), 1255–1280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, A., McGarrity, N., & Williams, G. (2015). Inside Australia’s anti-terrorism laws and trials. Randwick: NewSouth Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGarrity, N., & Blackbourn, J. (2019). Australia has enacted 82 anti-terror laws since 2001. But tough laws alone can’t eliminate terrorism. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/australia-has-enacted-82-anti-terror-laws-since-2001-but-tough-laws-alone-cant-eliminate-terrorism-123521. Accessed 12 Jun 2020.

  • Murphy, K., Madon, N. S., & Cherney, A. (2020). Reporting threats of terrorism: stigmatisation, procedural justice and policing Muslims in Australia. Policing and Society, 30(4), 361–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, E. C., Ostman, R., & Shanahan, J. (2008). Chapter 9: Public opinion toward Muslim Americans: civil liberties and the role of religiosity, ideology, and media use. In A. H. Sinno (Ed.), Muslims in western politics (pp. 161–199). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, M. (2008). Lay perceptions of terrorist acts and counter-terrorism responses: role of motive, offence construal, siege mentality and human rights. In M. Gani & P. Mathew (Eds.), Fresh perspectives on the “war on terror”. Canberra: ANU Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piazza, J. A. (2015). Terrorist suspect religious identity and public support for harsh interrogation and detention practices. Political Psychology, 36(6), 667–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, K. A. (2011). Framing Islam: an analysis of US media coverage of terrorism since 9/11. Communication Studies, 62(1), 90–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reicher, S., & Haslam, S. A. (2016). Fueling extremes. Scientific American Mind, 27(3), 34–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roach, K. (2011). The 9/11 effect: comparative counter-terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Robin-Olivier, S. (2005). Citizens and noncitizens in Europe: European Union measures against terrorism after September 11. Boston College Third World Law Journal, 25(1), 197–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sentas, V. (2014). Traces of terror: counter-terrorism law, policing, and race. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Spalek, B., & Imtoual, A. (2007). Muslim communities and counter-terror responses: “Hard” approaches to community engagement in the UK and Australia. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 27(2), 185–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephan, W. G., & Finlay, K. (1999). The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues, 55(4), 729–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tingle, L. (2019). Scott Morrison said all the right things after Christchurch attack, but his history tells another story. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-23/scott-morrison-end-of-tribalism-christchurch/10930682. Accessed 12 Jun 2020.

  • Unnever, J. D., & Cullen, F. T. (2009). Empathetic identification and punitiveness: a middle-range theory of individual differences. Theoretical Criminology, 13(3), 283–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unnever, J. D., & Cullen, F. T. (2010). Racial–ethnic intolerance and support for capital punishment: a cross-national comparison. Criminology, 48(3), 831–864.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unnever, J. D., & Cullen, F. T. (2012). White perceptions of whether African Americans and Hispanics are prone to violence and support for the death penalty. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 49(4), 519–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Applegate, B. K. (2005a). Turning the other cheek: reassessing the impact of religion on punitive ideology. Justice Quarterly, 22(3), 304–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Fisher, B. S. (2005b). Empathy and public support for capital punishment. Journal of Crime and Justice, 28(1), 1–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. (2008). Race, racism, and support for capital punishment. Crime and Justice, 37, 45–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Vyver, J., Houston, D. M., Abrams, D., & Vasiljevic, M. (2016). Boosting belligerence: how the July 7, 2005, London bombings affected liberals’ moral foundations and prejudice. Psychological Science, 27(2), 169–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Noll, J. (2010). Public support for a ban on headscarves: a cross-national perspective. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 4(2), 191–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Velasco González, K., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., & Poppe, E. (2008). Prejudice towards Muslims in the Netherlands: testing integrated threat theory. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47(4), 667–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welch, K. (2016). Middle eastern terrorist stereotypes and anti-terror policy support: the effect of perceived minority threat. Race and Justice, 6(2), 117–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. (2011). A decade of Australian anti-terror laws. University of Melbourne Law Review, 35(3), 1136–1176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, H. (2019). Pride and prejudice: exploring how identity processes shape public attitudes towards Australian counter-terrorism measures. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 52(4), 558–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, H., Fay, S., & Miles-Johnson, T. (2019). Fear of terrorism: media exposure and subjective fear of attack. Global Crime, 20(1), 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, H., Murphy, K., & Sargeant, E. (2018). The attitudes to punishment survey technical report. Brisbane: Griffith University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zammit, A. (2017). Australian Jihadism in the age of the Islamic state. CTC Sentinel, 10(3), 23–30.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This paper was supported by an Australian Research Council grant (Grant Number: FT180100139).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Mount Gravatt, 4122, Australia

    Harley Williamson & Kristina Murphy

  2. School of Criminology & Criminal Justice; Griffith Criminology Institute, Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Mount Gravatt, 4122, Australia

    Kristina Murphy

Authors
  1. Harley Williamson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristina Murphy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Harley Williamson.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

Vignette scenarios

Police are investigating a possible food-tampering incident at a fast-food chain in Australia that has potential to put Australian consumers at harm. Authorities were alerted to the incident when several customers collapsed at four of the fast-food restaurants with undiagnosed conditions. Police have apprehended an individual suspected of carrying out this incident in Australia. In a Facebook post on a [Vignette A: radical Muslim page; Vignette B: right-wing extremist page], the suspect expressed their willingness to take such action in [Vignette A: the name of Allah; Vignette B: support of the anti-immigration movement (i.e., opposition to immigration into Australia]. All foodstuffs from the affected fast-food restaurants have been destroyed. Customers who have consumed food from these restaurants have been urged to seek medical advice immediately. This incident has resulted in high demand and long waiting periods in hospital emergency departments and consulting rooms of doctors around the country. People are reporting a range of symptoms to hospitals and doctors including severe stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Emergency hotlines have been established to monitor the situation. Further details regarding the event are being withheld at this time.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Williamson, H., Murphy, K. Animus toward Muslims and its association with public support for punitive counter-terrorism policies: did the Christchurch terrorist attack mitigate this association?. J Exp Criminol 18, 343–363 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-020-09450-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-020-09450-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation