Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Raptor nesting locations along an urban density gradient in the Great Basin, USA

  • Published:
Urban Ecosystems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Raptors are the most prevalent group of urban apex predators, and the majority of raptor genera in North America have been recorded using urban areas. Prior research assessments along urban-wildland gradients show that urban habitat preference varies by raptor species and that raptor nesting preferences within urban settings may vary. Attempts to understand the intra- and inter-specific nesting patterns along an urban gradient would advance extant knowledge. Here we present the locations of individual nest sites of nine raptor species along an urban gradient in Reno-Sparks, NV. We developed an urban density model based on the number of residents, number of employees, and building footprints and number of floors for built structures within each land parcel at four spatial scales, representing nest site, macrohabitat, average nearest-nest, and landscape scales. Cooper’s Hawks (Accipiter cooperii), Sharp-shinned Hawks (Accipiter striatus), and Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) nested across the widest range of the urban spectrum and closest to the urban core, whereas Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and Swainson’s Hawks (Buteo swainsonii) nested on the urban fringe. Urban density for all nest locations was lowest at the nest-site scale, and the highest at the average nearest-nest and landscape scales. Raptors tended to occupy a wide range of the building-area density spectrum but not the building-height or employee density spectrums indicative of the attractiveness of suburban habitat.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Berry ME, Bock CE, Haire SL (1998) Abundance of diurnal raptors on open space grasslands in an urbanized landscape. Condor 100:601–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom PH, McCrary MD (1996) The urban Buteo: Red-shouldered hawks in southern California. In: Bird DM, Varlan DE, Negro JJ (eds) Raptors in human landscapes: Adaptations to built and cultivated environments. Academic Press Limited, London, pp 31–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Boal CW, Mannan RW (1998) Nest-site selection by Cooper’s hawks in an urban environment. J Wildl Manag 62(3):864–871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boal CW, Mannan RW (1999) Comparative breeding ecology of Cooper’s hawks in urban and exurban areas of southeastern Arizona. J Wildl Manag 63(1):77–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bosakowski T, Smith DG (1997) Distribution and species richness of a forest raptor community in relation to urbanization. J Raptor Res 31(1):26–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Cade TJ, Martell M, Redig P, Septon G, Tordoff H (1996) Peregrine falcons in urban North America. In: Bird DM, Varlan DE, Negro JJ (eds) Raptors in human landscapes: Adaptations to built and cultivated environments. Academic Press Limited, London, pp 3–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Cava JA, Stewart AC, Rosenfield RN (2012) Introduced species dominate the diet of breeding urban Cooper’s hawks in British Columbia. Wilson J Ornithol 124(4):775–782

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chace JF, Walsh JJ (2006) Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landsc Urban Plan 74(1):46–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke R, Wallis R, Hogan F, White J, Webster A (2006) The diet of powerful owls (Ninox strenua) and prey availability in a continuum of habitats from disturbed urban fringe to protected forest environments in south-eastern Australia. Wildl Res 33(3):199–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crooks KR (2002) Relative sensitivities of mammalian carnivores to habitat fragmentation. Conserv Biol 16(2):488–502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crooks KR, Soulé M (1999) Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system. Nature 400:563–566

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crooks KR, Suarez A, Bolger D (2004) Avian assemblages along a gradient of urbanization in a highly fragmented landscape. Biol Conserv 115(3):451–462

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson JW, Mannan RW (1995) Electrocution as a mortality factor in an urban population of Harris’ hawks. J Rapt Res 29:55

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra CR, Simon MM, Daniel FB, Hays JL (2012) Habitats of suburban barred owls (Strix varia) and red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) in Southwestern Ohio. J Rapt Res 46(2):190–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • England AS, Estep JA, Holt WR (1995) Nest-site selection and reproductive performance of urban-nesting Swainson’s Hawks in the central valley of California. J Rapt Res 29(3):179–186

    Google Scholar 

  • England AS, Bechard MJ, Houston CS (1997) Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swainsonii). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca

  • ESRI (2016) ArcGIS Desktop: 10.4. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands

  • Estes WA, Mannan RW (2003) Feeding behavior of Cooper’s hawks at urban and rural nests in southeastern Arizona. Condor 105(1):107–116

  • Garaffa PI, Filloy J, Bellocq M (2009) Bird community responses along urban–rural gradients: Does the size of the urbanized area matter? Landscape Urban Plan 90(1–2):33–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmer DS, Stewart RE (1983) Ferruginous hawk populations and habitat use in North Dakota. J Wildl Res 47(1):146–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hager S (2009) Human-related threats to urban raptors. J Rapt Res 43(3):210–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardcastle J (2010) Nevada county population projections 2010 to 2030. Nevada State Demographer, pp 1–7. Available at: https://tax.nv.gov/Publications/Population_Statistics_and_Reports/

  • Hepinstall-Cymerman J, Coe S, Alberti M (2009) Using urban landscape trajectories to develop a multi-temporal land cover database to support ecological modeling. Remote Sens 1(4):1353–1379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristan WB, Boarman WI, Crayon JJ (2004) Diet composition of common ravens across the urban-wildland interface of the West Mojave Desert. Wildl Soc Bull 32(1):244–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loos G, Kerlinger P (1993) Road mortality of saw-whet and screech owls on the Cape May Peninsula. J Rapt Res 27(4):210–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Love OP, Bird DM (2000) Raptors in urban landscapes: A review and future concerns. In: Chancellor RD, Meyburg BU (eds) Raptors at risk: Proceedings of the 5th world conference on birds of prey and owls. World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, pp 425–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Luniak M (2004) Synurbanization—adaptation of animal wildlife to urban development. In: Shaw WW, Harris LK, Vandruff L (eds) Proceedings of the 4th International Urban Wildlife Symposium. University of Arizona, Tucson, pp 50–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannan RW, Boal CW (2000) Home range characteristics of male Cooper’s hawks in an urban environment. Wilson Bull 112(1):21–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mannan RW, Boal CW, Burroughs WJ, Dawson JW, Estabrook TS, Richardson WS (2000) Nest sites of five raptor species along an urban gradient. In: Chancellor RD, Meyburg BU (eds) Raptors at risk. Hancock House Publisher, Ltd., Surrey, pp 447–453

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannan RW, Steidl RJ, Boal CW (2008) Identifying habitat sinks: A case study of Cooper’s hawks in an urban environment. Urban Ecosyst 11(2):141–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marti CD, Kochert MN (1995) Are red-tailed hawks and great horned owls diurnal-nocturnal dietary counterparts? Wilson Bull 107(4):615–628

    Google Scholar 

  • Marzluff JM (2005) Island biogeography for an urbanizing world: how extinction and colonization may determine biological diversity in human-dominated landscapes. Urban Ecosyst 8(2):157–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meffe GK (1997) Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Ass. Inc. Publ, Sunderland

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyburg B, Manowsky O, Meyburg C (1996) The osprey in Germany: its adaptation to environments altered by man. In: Bird DM, Varlan DE, Negro JJ (eds) Raptors in human landscapes: Adaptations to built and cultivated environments. Academic Press Limited, London, pp 125–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Minor WF, Minor M, Ingraldi MF (1993) Nesting of red-tailed hawks and great-horned owls in a central New York urban/suburban area. J Field Ornithol 64(4):433–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison JL, Gottlieb I, Pias KE (2016) Spatial distribution and the value of green spaces for urban red-tailed hawks. Urban Ecosyst 19(3):1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park JW (1996) Urban ecology of the Mississippi kite. In: Bird DM, Varlan DE, Negro JJ (eds) Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to Built and Cultivated Environments. Academic Press Limited, London, pp 45–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips RL, McEneaney TP, Beske AE (1984) Population densities of golden eagles in Wyoming. Wildl Soc Bull 12(3):269–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole AF, Bierregaard RO, Martell MS (2002) Osprey (Pandion haliaetus). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca

    Google Scholar 

  • R Core Project (2016) The R project for statistical computing. Available at www.R-project.org/. Accessed 14 Jan 2017

  • Rodgers AR, Carr AP, Beyer HL, Smith L, Kie JG (2007) HRT: Home range tools for ArcGIS. Centre for Northern Forest Research, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfield RN, Bielefeldt J, Affeldt JL, Beckmann DJ (1996) Urban nesting biology of Cooper’s hawks in Wisconsin. Raptors in human landscapes, Academic Press, London, pp 41–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth TC, Lima SL, Vetter WE (2005) Survival and causes of mortality in wintering sharp-shinned hawks and Cooper’s hawks. Wilson Bull 117:237–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rottenborn SC (2000) Nest-site and reproductive success of urban red-shouldered hawks in central California. J Rapt Res 34(1):18–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Rullman S, Marzluff J (2014) Raptor presence along an urban-wildland gradient: Influences of prey abundance and land cover. J Rapt Res 48(3):257–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutz C (2006) Home range size, habitat use, activity patterns and hunting behaviour of urban-breeding Northern Goshawks Accipiter gentilis. Ardea 94(2):185–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheaffer RL, Mendenhall W, Ott L (1996) Elementary Survey Sampling. Duxbury Press, Boston, p 324

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott TA (1985) Human impacts on the golden eagle population of San Diego County from 1928 to 1981. MS Thesis, San Diego State University

  • Smith DG, Bosakowski T, Divine A (1999) Nest site selection by urban and rural great horned owls in the Northeast. J Field Ornitho 70(4):535–542

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith SB, McKay JE, Richardson JK, Murphy MT (2012) Edges, trails, and reproductive performance of Spotted Towhees in urban greenspaces. In: Lepczyk CA, Warren PS (eds) Urban bird ecology and conservation. University of California Press, Los Angeles, pp 167–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorace A (2002) High density of bird and pest species in urban habitats and the role of predator abundance. Ornis Fenn 79(1):60–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorace A, Gustin M (2009) Distribution of generalist and specialist predators along urban gradients. Landsc Urban Plan 90(3):111–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer PR, Poole AF, Sceibel M (1985) Initial population recovery of breeding ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) in the region between New York City and Boston. In: Ilyichev VD, Gavrilov VM (Eds), Proceedings of the 18th International Ornithological Congress, Moscow, pp 705–714

  • Stout W, Anderson R, Papp J (1998) Urban, suburban, and rural red-tailed hawk nesting habitat and populations in southeast Wisconsin. J Rapt Res 32(3):221–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Stout WE, Temple SA, Cary JR (2006a) Landscape features of red-tailed hawk nesting habitat in an urban/suburban environment. J Rapt Res 40(3):181–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stout WE, Temple SA, Papp JM (2006b) Landscape correlates of reproductive success for an urban-suburban red-tailed hawk population. J Wildl Manag 70(4):989–997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney SJ, Redig PT, Tordoff HB (1997) Morbidity, survival and productivity of rehabilitated peregrine falcons in the upper mid-western U.S. J Rapt Res 31(4):347–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Tella JL, Hiraldo F, Donazar-Sancho JA, Negro JJ (1996) Costs and benefits of urban nesting in the Lesser Kestrel. In: Bird DM, Varlan DE, Negro JJ (eds) Raptors in human landscapes: Adaptations to built and cultivated environments. Academic Press, London, pp 53–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Tordoff HB, Redig PT (1997) Midwest peregrine falcon demography, 1982-1995. J Rapt Res 31(4):339–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Trammell EJ (2011) Avian urban ecology: Conservation planning opportunities for Reno, NV, USA. Dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno

  • Treves A, Karanth KU (2003) Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conserv Biol 17(6):1491–1499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truckee Meadows Regional Planning Agency (2016a) Washoe County Consensus Forecast 2016–2036. Reno

  • Truckee Meadows Regional Planning Agency (2016b) Truckee Meadows Housing Study. Reno

  • United States Census Bureau (2015) Quick Facts http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/3268400,3260600. Accessed 20 Feb 2017

  • Washoe County Assessor (2014) On-line Data https://www.washoecounty.us/assessor/online_data/. Accessed 10 Dec 2014

  • Webster CM, DeStefano S (2004) Using public surveys to determine the distribution of greater roadrunners in urban and suburban Tuscon, Arizona. In: Shaw WW, Harris LK, Vandruff L (eds) Proceedings of the 4th International Urban Wildlife Symposium. University of Arizona, Tucson, pp 69–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Whelan CJ, Wenny DG, Marquis RJ (2008) Ecosystem services provided by birds. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1134:25–60

  • Woodroffe R (2000) Predators and people: Using human densities to interpret declines of large carnivores. Anim Conserv 3(2):165–173

  • Zalewski A (1994) Diet of urban and suburban tawny owls in the breeding season. J Rapt Res 28(4):246–252

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Drs. Peter Bloom and Jeff Lincer for their insight, mentorship, and contributions to this work. Their support and guidance were instrumental in completing this research. We are also grateful to our funders Geodactics and Researchers Implementing Conservation Action. Lastly, we thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, University of Nevada Reno, 1664 N. Virginia Street, MS 154, Reno, NV, 89557, USA

    Justin H White, Scott D Bassett & Zachary E Ormsby

  2. Truckee Meadows Regional Planning Agency, 1105 Terminal Way # 316, Reno, NV, 89502, USA

    Jeremy M Smith

  3. Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 N. Virginia Street, MS 0314, Reno, NV, 89557, USA

    Jessi L Brown

Authors
  1. Justin H White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jeremy M Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Scott D Bassett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jessi L Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Zachary E Ormsby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Justin H White.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

White, J.H., Smith, J.M., Bassett, S.D. et al. Raptor nesting locations along an urban density gradient in the Great Basin, USA. Urban Ecosyst 21, 51–60 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0705-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0705-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation