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Paternal Incarceration and Early Sexual Onset Among Adolescents

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Abstract

Despite a growing literature documenting deleterious intergenerational consequences of incarceration, relatively little is known about how exposure to paternal incarceration is associated with risk behaviors in adolescence. In this article, we use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3405)—a cohort of urban children born around the turn of the twenty-first century and followed for 15 years—to examine the relationship between paternal incarceration and one indicator of adolescent risk behavior, early sexual onset. Results from adjusted logistic regression models show that paternal incarceration is associated with a greater likelihood of initiating sexual activity before age 15, in part resulting from externalizing problems that follow paternal incarceration. We also find that these associations are concentrated among boys living with their fathers prior to his incarceration. Given that paternal incarceration is a stressor concentrated among already vulnerable children, paternal incarceration may exacerbate inequalities in adolescent sexual risk behavior.

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Notes

  1. The percent distribution of adolescents’ age at the time of the 15-year survey is as follows: < 1% age 14, 54% age 15, 34% age 16, 8% age 17, 2% age 18, and < 1% age 19. In supplemental analyses, we removed the 15 adolescents who were younger than 15 at the 15-year survey, given that our dependent variable captures sexual onset before age 15. Results were consistent with those presented.

  2. Supplemental analyses that instead considered early sexual onset to indicate the adolescent reported first having sex before age 16 produced substantively similar results.

  3. We do not control for pubertal development, as information on pubertal maturation was not collected until the 15-year survey, after any reported first sexual activity. Some prior research suggests that younger pubertal development may confer higher risk of early sexual onset (e.g., Moore et al. 2014; Udry 1979; Zimmer-Gembeck and Helfand 2008). However, this association has been inconsistent across studies with varying designs (see Marino et al. 2013, for example, for a null association using prospective birth cohort data), and observed associations are usually small (Zimmer-Gembeck and Helfand 2008).

  4. There is also no measure of externalizing behaviors at the 1-year survey. However, we do adjust for child temperament, which is an age-appropriate measure of children’s behavior.

  5. We present coefficients from logistic regression models for ease of interpretation but, given that comparing across logistic regression models is not recommended (Mood 2010), supplemental analyses use linear probability models to estimate early sexual onset.

  6. The measure of paternal incarceration collapses any paternal incarceration that occurred between the 1- and 9-year surveys. It is possible that paternal incarceration occurring in early childhood is differentially associated with early sexual onset than paternal incarceration occurring in middle childhood. We considered this possibility in supplemental analyses. In adjusted logistic regression models (the equivalent of Model 2), paternal incarceration between the 1- and 5-year surveys and paternal incarceration between the 5- and 9-year surveys are similarly associated with early sexual onset (test for differences across coefficients: p = 0.610).

  7. These results are confirmed with Sobel–Goodman tests of mediation (Sobel 1986).

  8. Two mediating variables—parental monitoring and externalizing problems—are reported by both primary caregivers and children at the 9-year survey. In supplemental analyses, we substituted mothers’ reports of these measures with children’s reports of these measures. Results were consistent with the mothers’ reports, with parental supervision explaining 0% of the paternal incarceration coefficient (compared to 1% when using mothers’ reports) and externalizing behaviors explaining 7% of the paternal incarceration coefficient (compared to 13% when using mothers’ reports).

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Acknowledgements

Funding for the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study was provided by the NICHD through Grants R01HD36916, R01HD39135, and R01HD40421, as well as a consortium of private foundations (see http://www.fragilefamilies.princeton.edu/funders.asp for the complete list). Turney’s work on this project was supported by grants from the Foundation for Child Development and the William T. Grant Foundation.

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  1. University of California, Irvine, 3151 Social Science Plaza, Irvine, CA, 92697-5100, USA

    Kristin Turney & Rachel E. Goldberg

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  1. Kristin Turney
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Correspondence to Kristin Turney.

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Table 5 Propensity score matching models estimating the association between paternal incarceration and early sexual onset
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Turney, K., Goldberg, R.E. Paternal Incarceration and Early Sexual Onset Among Adolescents. Popul Res Policy Rev 38, 95–123 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-018-9502-4

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