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Human Rights Law: Australia and Slovenia

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Abstract

The human rights legal framework of Australia and Slovenia are vastly different. This article explores the evolution of human rights laws of Slovenia and Australia. While the study and comparison of Australia and Slovenia is uncommon, and not often used as an example to highlight aspects of human rights, both states have a long history of cooperation. The first Slovenian reportedly arrived in Australian in 1855. Since then, and particularly following World War Two, there has been a steady stream of Slovenian’s migrating to Australia. Slovenia upon independence prepared a new constitution that reflected the democratic human rights of the European Union, in 1991, and ratified the European Convention on Human rights in 1994. This article highlights how the opportunity Slovenia had to develop a new constitution, they were able to include many human rights that are often found in legislation. Australia’s constitution came into effect in 1901. Being more than 100 years old, there has been no attempts to revise the Australian constitution and expand the current express human rights. This article will determine whether the European Union’s human rights laws have not only influenced Slovenia’s human rights laws, but also Australia’s. This article suggests that Australia has much to learn from the Slovene experience, but is constrained by its constitution and region. This article highlights how a state formed in recent times, has had the opportunity to develop a constitution that reflects modern day human rights while an older state with longer established democracy has fallen behind in its protection of human rights.

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Notes

  1. Scott (1916, pp. 3–91).

  2. Richards (1987, p. 1609).

  3. Rubenstein (2002, p. 27).

  4. Reynolds (2003, pp. 20–24).

  5. Ibid.

  6. Ibid.

  7. Vasiljevna (2011, pp. 9–26).

  8. Ibid.

  9. von Hirschhausen (2009, pp. 551–573).

  10. Bagwell (1991, pp. 489–499).

  11. Mavčič (2009, p. 10).

  12. Frucht (2005, pp. 420–430).

  13. Sotirovič (2014, pp. 2–6).

  14. Ustava FLRJ, Official Gazette FLRJ, No. 10/46. Citizenship Act of the Peoples Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette of the Democratic Republic of Yugoslavia 64/1945.

  15. Haug Hilde (2012).

  16. Yugoslav Constitution of 1946 Article III, section 9.

  17. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI), 16 December 1966, entry into force 3 January 1976, Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 3. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 34/180 18 December 1979, entry into force 3 September 1981, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, 13.

  18. Commonwealth Electoral Act, No. 31, 1962.

  19. Constitution of the Commonwealth. Section 51.

  20. Kymlicka (2012, p. 6).

  21. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Rome, 4.XI.1950.

  22. Barnes (2004, pp. 1–20).

  23. Ibid.

  24. Jambrek (2014, p. 5).

  25. Ibid, Official Gazette of the SFRY, 41/1991.

  26. Ibid.

  27. Kogovsek and Pignoni (2007).

  28. Ibid.

  29. Irving (1997, p. 100).

  30. Ibid.

  31. Redfern Speech (Year for the World’s Indigenous People), Prime Minister Paul Keating, 1992, https://antar.org.au/sites/default/files/paul_keating_speech_transcript.pdf, Accessed 21 August 2015.

  32. Harvey and Longo (2008, p. 116).

  33. Walters and Bohnic (2015, pp. 83–102).

  34. Act ratifying the Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocols Nos. 3, 5 and 8 and amended by Protocol No. 2 and its Protocols Nos. 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, Zakon o ratifikaciji Konvencije o varstvu človekovih in temeljnih svoboščin, spremenjene s protokoli št. 3, 5 in 8 ter dopolnjene s protokolom št. 2, ter njenih protokolov št. 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 in 11, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia Treaties, MP, No. 7/94.

  35. Ibid.

  36. Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community 1951 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Community.pdf, Accessed 1 February 2018.

  37. Ibid, article 119.

  38. Article 3 and Title III, The Treaty of Rome, 25 March 1957, http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/emu_history/documents/treaties/rometreaty2.pdf, Accessed 1 February 2018.

  39. Council Regulation 1612/68, on freedom of movement of workers within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities L 257/2.

  40. Council Directive 76/207/EEC, on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, Official Journal of the European Community L 39.

  41. Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, 13.

  42. Australia Human Rights Commission, https://www.humanrights.gov.au/convention-elimination-all-forms-discrimination-against-women-cedaw-sex-discrimination-international, Accessed 28 June 2018.

  43. Slovenia automatically assumed ratification of independence, Notification of succession in respect of United Nations Conventions and conventions adopted by IAEA.

  44. Single European Act 1986, Official Journal of the European Communities L 169.

  45. Ibid, section II, Article13 EEC Treaty, Article 8a.

  46. Article A, Maastricht Treaty 1992, Official Journal of the European Union C 191.

  47. Ibid, article 8, states citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. 2. Citizens of the Union shall enjoy the rights conferred by this Treaty and shall be subject to the duties imposed thereby, http://www.eurotreaties.com/maastrichtec.pdf, Accessed 20 April 2012.

  48. Bosniak (2006, pp. 17–20).

  49. Nash (2009, pp. 1067–1083).

  50. Article 137 and 141, Amsterdam Treaty, Official Journal of the European Union C 340.

  51. Ibid, Article 6.

  52. Treaty of Nice 2001, Official Journal of the European Union C 80/1.

  53. Ibid, article 18.

  54. Treaty establishing the Constitution for Europe, Official Journal of the European Union C 310.

  55. Act ratifying the Treaty on the Constitution for Europe and the Final Act, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia, No. 1/2005.

  56. Ibid, article 6.

  57. Article 20, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 2012/C 326/01, Volume 55, 26 October 2012, Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship.

  58. Weil (2001, pp. 15–40).

  59. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 78/2011.

  60. Chapter 2, Consolidated Versions of the Treaty of the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union, 2010.

  61. Ibid.

  62. Ibid.

  63. Article 10, Treaty of Lisbon, Official Journal of the European Union, C 83/171, 2010.

  64. Rawls (2005, pp. 4–6).

  65. Lak (1992, pp. 175–185).

  66. Kogovšek (2001, pp. 27–29).

  67. Impact to Women from being Erased, statistics www.mirvni-institut.si8/izbrisani/en/statistics, Accessed 20 August 2017.

  68. Žitnik (2004).

  69. Kurić and Others v. Slovenia, European Court of Human Rights, 26828/06.

  70. Ibid.

  71. Council of Europe, Human Rights Europe, http://www.humanrightseurope.org/2014/03/slovenia-erased-people-human-rights-protest-leads-to-e250000-award, Accessed 6 December 2014.

  72. Dietrich v R [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292.

  73. The Hon Justice Michael Kirby AC CMG, Australia’s Growing Debt to the European Court of Human Rights, The Seventh FIAT JUSTICIA Lecture, Monash University, Faculty of Law 2008.

  74. The Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities, www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/…rights…/1838_229730fbdd853ed92de6e9, Accessed 2 October 2017.

  75. Due and Rigs (2008, pp. 1–5).

  76. European Union, Report on Racism and Xenophobia in Member States, European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2007.

  77. Stropnik (2011, pp. 1–3).

  78. Mavčič et al. (2012).

  79. Article 14, The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16.

  80. Ibid, Article 15.

  81. Ibid, Article 16.

  82. Ibid, Article 22.

  83. Ibid, Article 23.

  84. Ibid, Articles 16, 17, 18–31, 34–38.

  85. Ibid, Part II.

  86. Australian Constitution 1900, s 41. R v Pearson; Exparte Sipka (1983) 152 CLR 254. Kingsville v The Queen (1985) 159 CLR 264. Cheatle v The Queen (1993) 177 CLR 541.

  87. Australian Constitution 1900, s 80.

  88. R v Bernasconi (1915) 19 CLR 629.

  89. Constitution of Australia 1900, s116.

  90. Adelaide Company of Jehovah’s Witness Inc v Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116.

  91. Australian Constitution, sections 84, 99, 100, 128.

  92. Kruger v Commonwealth (Stolen Generation Case) (1997) 190 CLR 1.

  93. Australian Capital Television v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 212.

  94. Mavčič (2008, pp. 1–18).

  95. Part II, Slovenian Constitution, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16.

  96. Ibid.

  97. Lipott (2013, pp. 65–70).

  98. The Slovenian Constitution, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 64 and 65.

  99. Mavčič (1998, pp. 249–260).

  100. U-I-267/09-11-2-2010, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 14/2010, U-I-176/08-7-10-2010, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 84/2010, U-I-416/98-22-3-2001, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 28/01.

  101. Mavčič (1998, pp. 250–258).

  102. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 62.

  103. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 21 and 34.

  104. Slovenian Constitutional Court, U-I-109/10, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 78/2011.

  105. Momcilovic v The Queen (2011) HCA 34, 165.

  106. Article 8, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1976, adopted by the UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXII) 16 December 1966, entry into force on 23 March 1976, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p 171 and vol. 1057, p. 4077.

  107. Slovenian Criminal Code Act, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 1/2008, Articles 101–102.

  108. Divisions 270, Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995. Section 245AH of the Migration Act 1958.

  109. The Queen v Tang (2008) HCA 39, Order 33.

  110. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 41.

  111. Williams v The Queen (1987) HCA 36; 161 CLR 278, 292.

  112. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 19(3).

  113. Lisbon Treaty, Official Journal of the European Union C 36, Article 39.

  114. U-I-115/92, Official Gazette of the RS, No. 3/93. Article 38 of the constitution ensure the right to the protection of personal data.

  115. Article 17 (1) and (2) International Convention on Civil and Political Rights 1966.

  116. Australian Broadcasting Corporation v Lenah Game Meats Pty Ltd (2001) 208 CLR 199.

  117. VRAW v Minister for Immigration & Multicultural & Indigenous Affairs [2004] FCA 113, NAIS V Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2005) 228 CLR 470. Koniug v Federal Republic of Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 170, Osman v United Kingdom (1998) 29 E.H.R.R. 245. Australia has looked to the European Court of Human Rights and borrowed the courts standard in relation to a state's obligations to protect applicants in accordance with the Refugee Convention and Protocol.

  118. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 14.

  119. Equality before the law, Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2000, Official Journal of the European, 2007 C 303/01, Article 20. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia No. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 14.

  120. Ibid.

  121. U-I-146/07, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 111/2008.

  122. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Treaty Series, vol. 2515, p. 3.

  123. Disability Discrimination Act 1992, s4.

  124. Scoppola v Italy (No.3) (Application No 126/05), 2012, 81–82.

  125. Williams and Hume (2013, p. 219).

  126. The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Official Gazette Republic of Slovenia Nos. 33/91-I, 42/97, 66/2000, 24/03, 69/04, 68/06, 47/13, 75/16, Article 43.

  127. Kingswell v The Queen (1985) 159 CLR 264.

  128. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 3/2003.

  129. Dietrich v R [1992] HCA 57; (1992) 177 CLR 292.

  130. Ibid.

  131. Črnič et al. (2013, pp. 205–229).

  132. Ibid.

  133. Ibid.

  134. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011 Census, 2012–2013, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013, Accessed 30 June, 2015.

  135. Ibid.

  136. Ann Rieffer (2006, pp. 30–34).

  137. Ibid.

  138. Ibid.

  139. Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/european-union, Accessed 22 June 2018.

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Walters, R., Mavcic, A. & Harvey, M. Human Rights Law: Australia and Slovenia. Liverpool Law Rev 39, 197–219 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10991-018-9216-z

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