Skip to main content
Log in

Priority questions for the science, policy and practice of cultural landscapes in Europe

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

The design of effective responses to safeguard cultural landscape values in Europe needs collaborative action among the stakeholders involved. Despite considerable progress triggered by the European Landscape Convention (ELC) and other initiatives to link landscape science, policy and practice, a joint research–action agenda is still lacking.

Objectives and methods

We respond to this challenge by identifying common priority questions for the sustainable management of cultural landscapes in Europe. To this end, we gathered, in a first phase, the most relevant research questions through a Delphi-like process with the research community in this field. In a second phase, the questions were prioritized by three stakeholder groups: scientists (Ss), policy-makers (PMs) and practitioners (Ps). The importance ranks and the similarity between groups’ priorities were calculated and analyzed.

Results

We found that the research question that addressed the issue of how to secure sustainable cultural landscapes where they are not economically profitable was the most important, with high level of agreement among all stakeholders. Alignment among the three groups was generally high; being higher between Ps–Ss and Ps–PMs than between Ss and PMs.

Conclusions

Our exercise can assist the implementation of the ELC by outlining the potential direction of future applied research and by strengthening the ties between the multiple stakeholders involved in the stewardship of European cultural landscapes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bieling C, Plieninger T (eds) (2017) The science and practice of landscape stewardship. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. doi:10.1017/9781316499016

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieling C, Plieninger T, Pirker H, Vogl CR (2014) Linkages between landscapes and human well-being: an empirical exploration with short interviews. Ecol Econ 105:19–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borrini-Feyerabend G, Pimbert M, Farvar MT, Kothari A, Renard Y (2007) Sharing power: a global guide to collaborative management of natural resources. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Boubacar A, Niu Z (2014) Conceptual clustering. In: Park JJ, Jong H, Pan Y, Kim C-S, Yang Y (eds) Future information technology. Springer, Berlin, pp 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Braunisch V, Home R, Pellet J, Arlettaz R (2012) Conservation science relevant to action: a research agenda identified and prioritized by practitioners. Biol Conserv 153:201–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bürgi M, Hersperger AM, Schneeberger N (2004) Driving forces of landscape change—current and new directions. Landscape Ecol 19:857–868

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark J, Darlington J, Fairclough G (2003) Pathways to Europe’s landscape | historic England. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/pathways-to-europes-landscape/. Accessed 11 Sep 2016

  • Conrad E, Christie M, Fazey I (2011) Is research keeping up with changes in landscape policy? A review of the literature. J Environ Manag 92:2097–2108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke SJ, Danylchuk AJ, Kaiser MJ, Rudd MA (2010) Is there a need for a “100 questions exercise” to enhance fisheries and aquatic conservation, policy, management and research? Lessons from a global 100 questions exercise on conservation of biodiversity. J Fish Biol 76:2261–2286

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Montis A (2014) Impacts of the European Landscape Convention on national planning systems: a comparative investigation of six case studies. Landsc Urban Plan 124:53–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dick B (2000) Delphi face to face. Resource papers in action research. http://www.uq.net.au/action_research/arp/delphi.html

  • Dobson S (2011) Sustaining place through community walking initiatives. J Cult Herit Manag Sustain Dev 1:109–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estrada-Carmona N, Hart AK, DeClerck FAJ, Harvey CA, Milder JC (2014) Integrated landscape management for agriculture, rural livelihoods, and ecosystem conservation: an assessment of experience from Latin America and the Caribbean. Landsc Urban Plan 129:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans J, Jones P (2011) The walking interview: methodology, mobility and place. Appl Geogr 31:849–858

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fazey I, Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB (2005) What do conservation biologists publish? Biol Conserv 124:63–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleishman E, Blockstein DE, Hall JA, Mascia MB, Rudd MA, Scott JM, Sutherland WJ, Bartuska AM, Brown AG, Christen CA, Clement JP, Dellasala D, Duke CS, Eaton M, Fiske SJ, Gosnell H, Haney JH, Hutchnis M, Klein ML, Marqusee J, Noon BR, Nordgren JR, Orbuch MP,Powell J, Quarles SP, Saterson KA, Savitt CC, Stein BA, Webster MS, Vedder A (2011) Top 40 priorities for science to inform US conservation and management policy. Bioscience 61:290–300

  • García-Martín M, Bieling C, Hart A, Plieninger T (2016) Integrated landscape initiatives in Europe: multi-sector collaboration in multi-functional landscapes. Land Use Policy 58:43–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gobster PH (2011) Landscape and urban planning at 100: looking back moving forward. Landsc Urban Plan 100:315–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith S, Eggers WD (2004) Governing by network: the new shape of the public sector. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Hernández-Morcillo M, Hoberg J, Oteros-Rozas E, Pleininger T, Gómez-Baggethun E, Reyes-García V (2014) Traditional ecological knowledge in Europe: status quo and insights for the environmental policy agenda. Environ Sci Policy Sustain Dev 56:3–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones M, Stenseke M (2011) European landscape and participation—the challenges of participation. Springer, Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9932-7

    Google Scholar 

  • Jorgensen A (2016) Landscape justice in an anniversary year. Landsc Res 41:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplowitz MD, Hadlock TD, Levine R (2004) A comparison of web and mail survey response rates. Public Opin Q 68:94–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kark S, Sutherland WJ, Shanas U, Klass K, Achisar H, Dayan T, Gavrieli Y, Justo-Hanani R, Mandelik Y, Orion N, Pargament D, Portman M, Reisman-Berman O, Safriel UN, Schaffer G, Steiner N, Tauber I, Levin N (2016) Priority questions and horizon scanning for conservation: a comparative study. PLoS ONE 11:e0145978

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Knight AT, Cowling RM, Rouget M, Balmford A, Lombard AT, Campbell BM (2008) Knowing but not doing: selecting priority conservation areas and the research-implementation gap. Conserv Biol J Soc Conserv Biol 22:610–617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuemmerle T, Erb K, Meyfroidt P, Müller D, Verburg PH, Estel S, Haberl H, Hostert P, Jepsen MR, Kastner T, Levers C, Lindner M, Plutzar C, Verkerk PJ, Van der Zanden EH, Reenberg A (2013) Challenges and opportunities in mapping land use intensity globally. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 5:484–493

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lane J (2010) Let’s make science metrics more scientific. Nature 464:488–489

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milder JC, Hart AK, Dobie P, Minai J, Zaleschi C (2014) Integrated landscape initiatives for African agriculture, development, and conservation: a region-wide assessment. World Dev 54:68–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morton SR, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Lindenmayer DB, Olson MH, Hughes L, McCulloch MT, McIntyre S, Nix HA, Prober SM, Saunders DA, Andersen AN, Brugman MA, Lefroy EC, Lonsdale WM, Lowe I, McMichael AJ, Parslow JS, Steffen W, Williams JE, Woinarski JCZ (2009) The big ecological questions inhibiting effective environmental management in Australia. Austral Ecol 34:1–9

  • O’Farrell PJ, Anderson PML (2010) Sustainable multifunctional landscapes: a review to implementation. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2:59–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opdam P, Foppen R, Vos C (2001) Bridging the gap between ecology and spatial planning in landscape ecology. Landscape Ecol 16:767–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedroli B, Pinto-Correia T, Primdahl J (2016) Challenges for a shared European countryside of uncertain future. Towards a modern community-based landscape perspective. Land Res 41:450–460

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penker M, Enengel B, Mann C, Aznar O (2013) Understanding landscape stewardship—lessons to be learned from public service economics. J Agric Econ 64:54–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto-Correia T, Kristensen L (2013) Linking research to practice: the landscape as the basis for integrating social and ecological perspectives of the rural. Landsc Urban Plan 120:248–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plieninger T, Kizos T, Bieling C, Dû-Blayo LL, Budniok MA, Bürgi M, Crumley CL, Girod G, Howard P, Kolen J, Kuemmerle T, Milcinski G, Palang H, Trommler K, Verburg PH (2015) Exploring ecosystem-change and society through a landscape lens: recent progress in European landscape research. Ecol Soc 20(2):5

  • Plieninger T, Draux H, Fagerholm N, Bieling C, Bürgi M, Kizos T, Kuemmerle T, Primdahl J, Verburg PH (2016) The driving forces of landscape change in Europe: a systematic review of the evidence. Land Use Policy 57:204–214

  • Prager K, Reed M, Scott A (2012) Encouraging collaboration for the provision of ecosystem services at a landscape scale—rethinking agri-environmental payments. Land Use Policy 29:244–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pretty J, Sutherland WJ, Ashby J, Auburn J, Baulcombe D, Bell M, Bently J, Bickersteth S, Brown K, Burke J, Campbell H, Chen K, Crowley E, Crute I, Dobbelaere D, Edwards-Jones G, Funes-Monzote F, Godfray HCJ, Griffon M, Gypmantisiri P, Haddad L, Halavatau S, Herren H, Holderness M, Izac AM, Jones M, Koohafkan P, Lal R, Lang T, McNeely J, Mueller A, Nisbett N, Noble A, Pingali P, Pinto Y, Rabbinge R, Ravindranath RH, Rola A, Roling N, Sage C, Settle W, Sha JM, Shiming L, Simons T, Smith P, Strzepeck K, Swaine H, Terry E, Tomich TP, Toulmin C, Trigo E, Twomlown S, Vis JK, Wilson J, Pilgrim S (2010) The top 100 questions of importance to the future of global agriculture. Int J Agric Sustain 8:219–236

  • Pullin AS, Knight TM (2005) Assessing conservation management’s evidence base: a survey of management-plan compilers in the United Kingdom and Australia. Conserv Biol 19:1989–1996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pullin AS, Knight TM, Stone DA, Charman K (2004) Do conservation managers use scientific evidence to support their decision-making? Biol Conserv 119:245–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raudsepp-Hearne C, Peterson GD, Tengö M, Bennett EM, Holland T, Benessaiah K, MacDonald GK, Pfeifer L (2010) Untangling the environmentalist’s paradox: why is human well-being increasing as ecosystem services degrade? Bioscience 60:576–589

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond CM, Reed M, Bieling C, Robinson GM (2016) Integrating different understandings of landscape stewardship into the design of agri-environmental schemes. Environ Conserv. doi:10.1017/S037689291600031X

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed J, Van Vianen J, Deakin EL, Barlow J, Suderland T (2016) Integrated landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics: learning from the past to guide the future. Glob Change Biol 22:2540–2554

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg S, Vedlitz A, Cowman DF, Zahran S (2010) Climate change: a profile of US climate scientists’ perspectives. Clim Change 101:311–329

  • Roux DJ, Rogers KH, Biggs H, Ashton PJ, Sergeant A (2006) Bridging the science–management divide: moving from unidirectional knowledge transfer to knowledge interfacing and sharing. Ecol Soc 11(1):4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudd MA (2011) How research-prioritization exercises affect conservation policy. Conserv Biol 25:860–866

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudd MA, Beazley KF, Cooke SJ, Fleishman E, Lane DE, Mascia MB, Roth R, Tabor G, Bakker JA, Bellefontaine T, Berteaux D, Cantin B, Chaulk KG, Cunningham K, Dobell R, Fast E, Ferrara N, Findlay CS, Hallstrom LK, Hammond T, Hermanutz L, Hutchings JA, Lindsay KE, Marta TJ, Nguyen VM, Northey G, Prio K, Ramitez-Sanchez S, Rice J, Sleep DJH, Szabo ND, Trottier G, Toussaint JP, Veilleux JP (2011) Generation of priority research questions to inform conservation policy and management at a national level. Conserv Biol 25:476–484

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stenseke M (2016) Integrated landscape management and the complicating issue of temporality. Landsc Res 41:199–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ, Freckleton RP (2012) Making predictive ecology more relevant to policy-makers and practitioners. Philos Trans R Soc B 367:322–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ, Pullin AS, Dolman PM, Knight TM (2004) The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 19:305–308

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ, Adams WM, Aronson RB, Aveling R, Blackburn TM, Broad S, Ceballos G, Côté IM, Cowling RM, Da Fonseca GA, Dinerstein E, Ferraro PJ, Fleishman E, Gascon C, Hunter M Jr, Hutton J, Kareiva P, Kuria A, Macdonald DW, Mackinnon K, Madgwick FJ, Mascia MB, McNeely J, Milner-Gulland EJ, Moon S, Morley CG, Nelson S, Osborn D, Pai M, Parsons EC, Peck LS, Possingham H, Prior SV, Pullin AS, Rands MR, Ranganathan J, Redford KH, Rodriguez JP, Seymour F, Sobel J, Sodhi NS, Stott A, Vance-Borland K, Watkinson AR (2009) One hundred questions of importance to the conservation of global biological diversity. Conserv Biol 23:557–567

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland LA, Gabriel D, Hathaway-Jenkins L, Pascual U, Schmutz U, Rigbyf D, Godwinc R, Sait SM, Sakrabani R, Kuninb WE, Bentonb TG, Stagl S (2012) The ‘Neighbourhood Effect’: a multidisciplinary assessment of the case for farmer co-ordination in agri-environmental programmes. Land Use Policy 29:502–512

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ, Freckleton RP, Godfray HCJ, Beissinger SR, Benton T, Cameron DD, Carmel Y, Coomes D, Coulson T, Emmerson MC, Hails RS, Hays GC, Hodgson DJ, Hutchings MJ, Johnson D, Jones JPG, Keeling MJ, Kokko H, Kunin WE, Lambin X, Lewis OZ, Malhi Y, Mieszkowska N, Milner-Gulland EJ, Norris K, Phillimore AB, Purves DW, Reid JR, Reuman DC, Thompson K, Travis JMJ, Turnbull LA, Wardle DA, Wiegand T (2013) Identification of 100 fundamental ecological questions. J Ecol 101:58–67

  • Swaffield S (2012) Empowering landscape ecology-connecting science to governance through design values. Landscape Ecol 28:1193–1201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tengö M, Hill R, Malmer P, Raymond CM, Spierenburg M, Danielsen F, Elmqvist T, Folke C (2017) Weaving knowledge systems in IPBES, CBD and beyond—lessons learned for sustainability. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 26–27:17–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson IH (2012) Ten tenets and six questions for landscape urbanism. Landsc Res 37:7–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vos W, Meekes H (1999) Trends in European cultural landscape development: perspectives for a sustainable future. Landsc Urban Plan 46:3–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walzer C, Kowalczyk C, Alexander JM, Baur B, Bogliani G, Brun JJ, Füreder, Guth MO, Haller R, Holderegger R, Kohler Y, Kueffer C, Righetti A, Spaar R, Sutherland WJ, Ullrich-Schneider A, Vanpeene-Bruhier SN, Scheure T (2013) The 50 most important questions relating to the maintenance and restoration of an ecological continuum in the European Alps. PLoS ONE 8:e53139

  • Wu JG (2013) Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecol 28:999–1023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Hobbs R (2002) Key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology: an idiosyncratic synthesis. Landscape Ecol 17:355–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young (2012) Extrapolating climate change data for cultural landscapes. In: Weber S (ed) Rethinking protected areas in a changing world: Proceedings of the 2011 George Wright society biennial conference on parks, protected areas, and cultural sites. The George Wright Society, Hancock, pp 401–404

Download references

Acknowledgements

We especially thank the expert contributions received for the development of the questionnaire as well as the respondents to the survey for their valuable time and suggestions. This research received support through Grant 603447 (Project HERCULES) from the European Commission (7th Framework Program).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mónica Hernández-Morcillo.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 14 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hernández-Morcillo, M., Bieling, C., Bürgi, M. et al. Priority questions for the science, policy and practice of cultural landscapes in Europe. Landscape Ecol 32, 2083–2096 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0524-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0524-9

Keywords

Navigation