Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Family, Belonging and Meaning in Life Among Semi-rural Kenyans

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

To date, most research on families in sub-Saharan Africa focus on the various risks associated with family life—transmission of HIV, violence, human rights abuses, and over-population. Substantially less research explores how family membership supports human life and flourishing. In this study we use data from two different cross-sectional studies to investigate whether family functioning, among females (n = 1789), and conflict tactics, among males (n = 263), predict meaning in life. We hypothesized that better family functioning would predict more social support, which would in turn mediate the association between family functioning and meaning in life. Among males, we hypothesized that less violent conflict and more negotiation-based conflict would predict less loneliness, which in turn would predict more meaning in life. In both samples, family relationship quality predicted meaning in life, and were mediated by measures of social belonging. Among females, better family functioning significantly predicted more meaning in life, an association mediated by more social support. Among males, less violent conflict and more negotiation-based conflict predicted less loneliness. While there was no direct association between negotiation-based conflict and meaning in life, there was an indirect association through lower loneliness. The general picture from both samples is that family dynamics provide the opportunity to belong for both women and men, and that this opportunity for social belonging can predict more meaning in life. Further research is required to understand the cultural construction of meaning, and how this can be enhanced by family identification, and conflict tactics. Efforts to strengthen families to reduce risks associated with family life may draw upon the inherent drive towards meaning common across cultures and income levels.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abramsky, T., Watts, C. H., Garcia-Moreno, C., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Ellsberg, M., et al. (2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adamczyk, K. (2013). Development and validation of the Polish-language version of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). Revue internationale de psychologie sociale, 26(4), 25–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Afolabi, B. A., Afolabi, M. O., Afolabi, A. A., Odewale, M. A., & Olowookere, S. A. (2013). Roles of family dynamics on adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy among people living with HIV/AIDS at a tertiary hospital in Osogbo, south-west Nigeria. African Health Sciences, 13(4), 920–926.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969). Object relations, dependency, and attachment: a theoretical review of the infant–mother relationship. Child Development, 40(4), 969–1025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amoateng, A., & Richter, L. (2003). The state of families in South Africa. The State of the Nation: South Africa, 2003–2004, 242–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, G., Ricardo, C., Nascimento, M., Olukoya, A., & Santos, C. (2010). Questioning gender norms with men to improve health outcomes: Evidence of impact. Global Public Health, 5(5), 539–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning, and social life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bongaarts, J., & Casterline, J. (2013). Fertility transition: Is sub-Saharan Africa different? Population and Development Review, 38(s1), 153–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Çeçen, A. R. (2007). The Turkish short version of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA-S): Initial development and validation. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 35(6), 717–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, H., Batterham, P. J., Mackinnon, A. J., Donker, T., & Soubelet, A. (2014). Predictors of the risk factors for suicide identified by the interpersonal–psychological theory of suicidal behaviour. Psychiatry Research, 219(2), 290–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, S. (2004). Early marriage and HIV risks in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies in Family Planning, 35(3), 149–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, G. D., & Walker, R. R. (1991). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: A confirmation study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(6), 756–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Debats, D. L. (1999). Sources of meaning: An investigation of significant commitments in life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 39(4), 30–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ditommaso, E., Brannen, C., & Best, L. A. (2004). Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(1), 99–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Du Mont, J., & Forte, T. (2014). Intimate partner violence among women with mental health-related activity limitations: A Canadian population based study. BMC Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunkle, K. L., Jewkes, R. K., Brown, H. C., Gray, G. E., McIntryre, J. A., & Harlow, S. D. (2004). Gender-based violence, relationship power, and risk of HIV infection in women attending antenatal clinics in South Africa. The Lancet, 363(9419), 1415–1421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, N. B., Baldwin, L. M., & Bishop, D. S. (1983). The McMaster family assessment device. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 9(2), 171–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraley, C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 123–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Zhang, Y., Gitari, S., Azubuike, M., Keiser, P. H., & Seidel, S. E. (2016a). Predictors of child-fostering attitudes in a large cross-section of Kenyan women: Family, health, and psycho-social factors and the residual presence of childhood adversities. British Journal of Social Work, 47(7), 1850–1869.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Serag, H., Gitari, S., Keiser, P. H., Dacso, M., & Raimer, B. G. (2016b). Exploring pathways between HIV+ status and excellent overall health among Kenyan women: Family functioning, meaningfulness of life, seroconcordance, social support and considering the need for integrated care. Journal of Community Health, 41(5), 989–997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-016-0181-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Martinez, K., Keiser, P. H., Gitari, S., & Seidel, S. E. (2017a). Why do Kenyan children live on the streets? Evidence from a cross-section of semi-rural maternal caregivers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Serag, H., Keiser, P. K., Gitari, M., & Raimer, B. G. (2017b). Relative social standing and suicide ideation among Kenyan males: The interpersonal theory of suicide in context. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(10), 1307–1316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1427-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Johnson, T., Guillot-Wright, S., Ackerman Porter, K., Gitari, S., & Keiser, P. (2017c). Orphaned girls have less meaningful lives, as reported by women in a large community sample. Quality of Life Research, 26(6), 1551–1559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1511-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, M. L., Hindman, A., Keiser, P., Gitari, S., Ackerman Porter, K., & Raimer, B. G. (2017d). Neglect, sexual abuse and witnessing intimate partner violence during childhood predicts later life violent attitudes against children among Kenyan women: Evidence of intergenerational risk transmission from cross-sectional data. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516689777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagerty, B. M., Williams, R. A., Coyne, J. C., & Early, M. R. (1996). Sense of belonging and indicators of social and psychological functioning. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 10(4), 235–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hank, K., & Wagner, M. (2013). Parenthood, marital status, and well-being in later life: Evidence from SHARE. Social Indicators Research, 114(2), 639–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social Identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology, 58(1), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2012). “PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling,” white paper. The Ohio State University. Available at http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf. Accessed 18 Jan 2018.

  • Heine, S. J., Proulx, T., & Vohs, K. D. (2006). The meaning maintenance model: On the coherence of social motivations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(2), 88–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, L. M., Maman, S., Groves, A. K., & Moodley, D. (2015). Social support among HIV-positive and HIV-negative adolescents in Umlazi, South Africa: Changes in family and partner relationships during pregnancy and the postpartum period. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 15(1), 117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2010). The role of meaning in life and optimism in promoting well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 658–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M. A. (2009). Managing self-uncertainty through group identification. Psychological Inquiry, 20(4), 221–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Itzick, M., Kagan, M., & Ben-Ezra, M. (2016). Social worker characteristics associated with perceived meaning in life. Journal of Social Work, 18, 326–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jewkes, R., Flood, M., & Lang, J. (2015). From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of inequities in gender relations: A conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls. The Lancet, 385(9977), 1580–1589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalantarkousheh, S. M., & Hassan, S. A. (2010). Function of life meaning and marital communication among Iranian spouses in Universiti Putra Malaysia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 1646–1649.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Cloete, A., Clayford, M., Arnolds, W., Mxoli, M., et al. (2009). Integrated gender-based violence and HIV risk reduction intervention for South African men: Results of a quasi-experimental field trial. Prevention Science, 10(3), 260–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, M. E., & Donaldson, G. A. (1991). Contributions of parental attachment and family structure to the social and psychological functioning of first-year college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(4), 479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. (2006). Subjective well-being in mental health and human development research worldwide: An introduction. Social Indicators Research, 77(1), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, E. M., Adams, L. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Riskind, J. H. (2013). Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated moderation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 47(5), 539–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, E. M., & Beaver, J. K. (2013). A meaningful life is worth living: Meaning in life as a suicide resiliency factor. Psychiatry Research, 210(3), 934–939.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (2007). Longitudinal study of social support and meaning in life. Psychology and Aging, 22(3), 456–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, N. M., Stillman, T. F., Baumeister, R. F., Fincham, F. D., Hicks, J. A., & Graham, S. M. (2010). Family as a salient source of meaning in young adulthood. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(5), 367–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, N. M., Stillman, T. F., Hicks, J. A., Kamble, S., Baumeister, R. F., & Fincham, F. D. (2013). To belong is to matter: Sense of belonging enhances meaning in life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418–1427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamis, D. A., Leenaars, L. S., Jahn, D. R., & Lester, D. (2013). Intimate partner violence: Are perpetrators also victims and are they more likely to experience suicide ideation? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(16), 3109–3128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesch, E., Casper, R., & van der Watt, A. S. (2016). Romantic relationships and loneliness in a group of South African postgraduate students. South African Review of Sociology, 47(4), 22–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lickel, B., Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, S. J. (2001). Elements of a lay theory of groups: Types of groups, relational styles, and the perception of group entitativity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(2), 129–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowenthal, E. D., Bakeera-Kitaka, S., Marukutira, T., Chapman, J., Goldrath, K., & Ferrand, R. A. (2014). Perinatally acquired HIV infection in adolescents from sub-Saharan Africa: A review of emerging challenges. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 14(7), 627–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 415–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mansfield, A. K., Keitner, G. I., & Dealy, J. (2015). The family assessment device: An update. Family Process, 54(1), 82–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mellor, D., Stokes, M., Firth, L., Hayashi, Y., & Cummins, R. (2008). Need for belonging, relationship satisfaction, loneliness, and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(3), 213–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, K. S., Winskell, K., Pruitt, K. L., & Saul, J. (2015). Curriculum development around parenting strategies to prevent and respond to child sexual abuse in sub-Saharan Africa: A program collaboration between families matter! And global dialogues. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24(8), 839–852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morantz, G., Cole, D., Vreeman, R., Ayaya, S., Ayuku, D., & Braitstein, P. (2013). Child abuse and neglect among orphaned children and youth living in extended families in sub-Saharan Africa: What have we learned from qualitative inquiry? Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8(4), 338–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pronyk, P. M., Hargreaves, J. R., Kim, J. C., Morison, L. A., Phetla, G., Watts, C., et al. (2006). Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: A cluster randomised trial. The Lancet, 368(9551), 1973–1983.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1997). Why do we need what we need? A terror management perspective on the roots of human social motivation. Psychological Inquiry, 8(1), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raj, A. (2010). When the mother is a child: The impact of child marriage on the health and human rights of girls. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 95(11), 931–935. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.178707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robustelli, B. L., Trytko, A. C., Li, A., & Whisman, M. A. (2015). Marital discord and suicidal outcomes in a national sample of married individuals. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 45(5), 623–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roepke, A. M., Jayawickreme, E., & Riffle, O. M. (2014). Meaning and health: A systematic review. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 9(4), 1055–1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer, A., Ayers, S., & Smith, H. (2010). Pre-and postnatal psychological wellbeing in Africa: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 123(1–3), 17–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnell, T. (2009). The Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe): Relations to demographics and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 483–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Positive psychology: An introduction. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Flow and the foundations of positive psychology (pp. 279–298). London: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Greenaway, E., & Trinitapoli, J. (2014). Polygynous contexts, family structure, and infant mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Demography, 51(2), 341–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, K. L., Williams, K. D., Ciarocco, N. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001). When silence speaks louder than words: Explorations into the intrapsychic and interpersonal consequences of social ostracism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23(4), 225–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speizer, I. S. (2010). Intimate partner violence attitudes and experience among women and men in Uganda. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(7), 1224–1241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ssewamala, F. M., Sperber, E., Zimmerman, J. M., & Karimli, L. (2010). The potential of asset-based development strategies for poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Social Welfare, 19(4), 433–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stack, S. (1998). Marriage, family and loneliness: A cross-national study. Sociological Perspectives, 41(2), 415–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., Sullivan, B. A., & Lorentz, D. (2008). Understanding the search for meaning in life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of Personality, 76(2), 199–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S. K. (2006). Targeted random walk designs. Survey Methodology, 32(1), 11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurman, T. R., Kidman, R., Nice, J., & Ikamari, L. (2015). Family functioning and child behavioral problems in households affected by HIV and AIDS in Kenya. AIDS and Behavior, 19(8), 1408–1414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Till, B., Tran, U. S., & Niederkrotenthaler, T. (2016). Relationship satisfaction and risk factors for suicide. Crisis, 38(1), 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003a). Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(3), 574–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003b). Social exclusion and the deconstructed state: Time perception, meaninglessness, lethargy, lack of emotion, and self-awareness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 409–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71(3), 684–689.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, A., & Tsikata, D. (2003). Policy discourses on women’s land rights in Sub-Saharan Africa: The implications of the re-turn to the customary. Journal of Agrarian Change, 3(1–2), 67–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2001). Ostracism: The power of silence. New York, London: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wissing, M., Khumaloe, I., & Chigeza, S. (2014). Meaning as perceived and experienced by an African student group. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24(1), 92–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, P. T. (2012). From logotherapy to meaning-centered counseling and therapy. The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications, 2, 619–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zika, S., & Chamberlain, K. (1992). On the relation between meaning in life and psychological well-being. British Journal of Psychology, 83(1), 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA

    Michael L. Goodman, Derrick C. Gibson, Philip H. Keiser & Lauren Raimer-Goodman

  2. Sodzo International, Houston, TX, USA

    Michael L. Goodman

  3. Maua Methodist Hospital, Meru County, Kenya

    Stanley Gitari

Authors
  1. Michael L. Goodman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Derrick C. Gibson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Philip H. Keiser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stanley Gitari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lauren Raimer-Goodman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael L. Goodman.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Goodman, M.L., Gibson, D.C., Keiser, P.H. et al. Family, Belonging and Meaning in Life Among Semi-rural Kenyans. J Happiness Stud 20, 1627–1645 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0017-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0017-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation