Abstract
Engagement is a core component of effective educational programs for children with autism. Analysis of 711 naturalistic goal-directed classroom behaviors of four school-age children with autism and four comparable children with Down syndrome (DS) was conducted. The definition of engagement was expanded to include child compliance and congruence. A main finding was both child and environmental factors influenced type of engagement. Children with DS produced 20% more goal-directed behaviors that were both congruent and compliant compared to children with autism. Large group instruction was associated with less congruent engagement but more compliant engagement for children with autism. These findings suggest specific types of engagement which may lead to advances in developing evidence-based practices for specific developmental disorders.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual (4th ed.). Washington: American Psychiatric Association.
Barker, R. (1963). The stream of behavior as an empirical problem. In R. Barker (Ed.), The stream of behavior (pp. 1–22). New York: Appleton, Century, and Crofts.
Barker, R., & Wright, H. (1955/1971). Midwest and its children. Hamden: Archon Books.
Barker, R. G., & Wright, H. F. (1966). One boy’s day; a specimen record of behavior. Hamden: Archon Books.
Bowman, R. (1980). The behavior of field-dependent and field-independent students as assessed by an ecological approach. Unpublished dissertation abstracts international, 41, 987A, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.
Carter, C. M. (2001). Using choice with game play to increase language skills and interactive behaviors in children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3(3), 131–151.
Dawson, G., & Osterling, J. (1997). Early intervention in autism. In M. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 307–326). Baltimore: P.H. Brookes.
DiPerna, J. C., Volpe, R. J., & Elliott, S. N. (2002). A model of academic enablers and elementary reading/language arts achievement. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 298–312.
Doke, L. A., & Risley, T. R. (1972). The organization of day-care environments: Required vs. optional activities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5(4), 405–420.
Dugan, E., Kamps, D., Leonard, B., & Watkins, N. (1995). Effects of cooperative learning groups during social studies for students with autism and fourth-grade peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(2), 175–188.
Gardner, F. (2000). Methodological issues in the direct observation of parent–child interaction: Do observational findings reflect the natural behavior of participants? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3, 185–197.
Garfinkle, A. N., & Schwartz, I. S. (2002). Peer imitation: Increasing social interactions in children with autism and other developmental disabilities in inclusive preschool classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(1), 26–38.
Greenwood, C. R. (1991). Longitudinal analysis of time, engagement, and achievement in at-risk versus non-risk students. Exceptional Children, 57(6), 521–535.
Greenwood, C. R., Horton, B. T., & Utley, C. A. (2002). Academic engagement: Current perspectives on research and practice. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 328–349.
Hall, L. J., McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J. (1995). Promoting independence in integrated classrooms by teaching aides to use activity schedules and decreased prompts. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 30(3), 208–217.
Howard, J., Sparkman, C., Cohen, H., Green, G., & Stanislaw, H. (2005). A comparison of intensive behavior analytic and eclectic treatments for young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26, 359–383.
Jones, M. L. (1988). Assessing the quality of living environments. In G. B. Mesibov (Ed.), Diagnosis and assessment in autism. Current issues in autism (pp. 183–197). New York: Plenum.
Kamps, D. M., Dugan, E., Potucek, J., & Collins, A. (1999). Effects of cross-age peer tutoring networks among students with autism and general education students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 9(2), 97–115.
Kamps, D. M., Dugan, E. P., Leonard, B. R., & Daoust, P. M. (1994). Enhanced small group instruction using choral responding and student interaction for children with autism and developmental disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 99(1), 60–73.
Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B., Potucek, J., & Garrison-Harrell, L. (1995). Cooperative Learning Groups in reading: An integration strategy for students with autism and general classroom peers. Behavioral Disorders, 21(1), 89–109.
Kasari, C. (2002). Assessing change in early intervention programs for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(5), 447–461.
Krantz, P., & Risley, T. R. (1977). Classroom management: The successful use of behavior modification. In K. D. O’Leary, & S. G. O’Leary (Eds.), Pergamon general psychology series (2nd ed., Vol. 27, pp. 349–367). New York: Pergamon.
Krantz, P. J., MacDuff, M. T., & McClannahan, L. E. (1993). Programming participation in family activities for children with autism: Parents’ use of photographic activity schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(1), 137–138.
de Kruif, R. E. L., & McWilliam, R. A. (1999). Multivariate relationships among developmental age, global engagement, and observed child engagement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(4), 515–536.
Lewy, A. L., & Dawson, G. (1992). Social stimulation and joint attention in young autistic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20(6), 555–566.
Lovaas, O. I. (1981). Teaching developmentally disabled children: The “me” book. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3–9.
Macduff, G. S. (1995). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 55(9-B), 4109.
MacDuff, G. S., Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1993). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26(1), 89–97.
Massey, N. G., & Wheeler, J. J. (2000). Acquisition and generalization of activity schedules and their effects on task engagement in a young child with autism in an inclusive pre-school classroom. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35(3), 326–335.
McDonnell, J., Thorson, N., McQuivey, C., & Kiefer-O’Donnell, R. (1997). Academic engaged time of students with low-incidence disabilities in general education classes. Mental Retardation, 35(1), 18–26.
McGee, G. G., Morrier, M. J., & Daly, T. (1999). An incidental teaching approach to early intervention for toddlers with autism. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(3), 133–146.
McWilliam, R. A., & Bailey, D. B. (1992). Promoting engagement and mastery. In D. B. Bailey, & M. Wolery (Eds.), Teaching infants and preschoolers with disabilities (pp. 230–255). New York: MacMillan.
McWilliam, R. A., & Bailey, D. B. (1995). Effects of classroom social structure and disability on engagement. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 15(2), 123–147.
McWilliam, R. A., Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (1985). Behavior engagement as a measure of the efficacy of early intervention. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 5(1–2), 59–71.
Montes, F., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Evaluating traditional day care practices: An empirical approach. Child Care Quarterly, 4, 208–215.
Mundy, P., & Sheinkopf, S. (1998). Early communication skill acquisition and developmental disorders. In J. A. Burack (Ed.), Handbook of mental retardation and development (pp. 183–207). New York: Cambridge University Press.
National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington: National Academy Press.
New Jersey Department of Education. (2004). Autism Program Quality Indicators. Retrieved, 2005, from http://www.state.nj.us/njded/specialed/info/autism_memo.pdf.
Odom, S., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R., Thompson, B., & Harris, K. (2005). Research in special education. Scientific methods and evidence-based practices. Council for Exceptional Children, 71(2), 137–148.
Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1995). Increasing complex social behaviors in children with autism: Effects of peer-implemented pivotal response training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(3), 285–295.
Prizant, B. M., & Duchan, J. F. (1981). The functions of immediate echolalia in autistic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46(3), 241–249.
Prizant, B. M., & Rydell, P. J. (1984). Analysis of functions of delayed echolalia in autistic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27(2), 183–192.
Prizant, B. M., Wetherby, A. M., & Rydell, P. J. (2000). Communication intervention issues for young children with autism spectrum disorders. In A. M. Wetherby, & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders: A transactional developmental perspective. Communication and language intervention series (Vol. 9, pp. 193–224). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Raspa, M. J., McWilliam, R. A., & Ridley, S. M. (2001). Child care quality and children’s engagement. Early Education and Development, 12(2), 209–224.
Ruble, L. A. (2001). Analysis of social interactions as goal-directed behaviors in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(5), 471–482.
Ruble, L. A., & Dalrymple, N. J. (1996). An alternative view of outcome in autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 11(1), 3–14.
Ruble, L. A., & Dalrymple, N. J. (2002). COMPASS: A parent–teacher collaborative model for students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2), 76–83.
Ruble, L. A., & Scott, M. (2002). Executive functions and natural habitat behaviors of children with autism. Autism, 6, 365–382.
Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to engage in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(1), 81–84.
Schoggen, P. (1964). Mechanical aids for making specimen records of behavior. Child Development, 35, 985–988.
Scott, M. (1980). Ecological theory and methods for research in special education. Journal of Special Education, 14(3), 279–294.
Scott, M. M., & Hatfield, J. G. (1985). Problems of analyst and observer agreement in naturalistic narrative data. Journal of Educational Measurement, 22(3), 207–218.
Shearer, D. D. (1996). Promoting independent interactions between preschoolers with autism and their nondisabled peers: An analysis of self-monitoring. Early Education and Development, 7(3), 205–220.
Travis, L., Sigman, M., & Ruskin, E. (2001). Links between social understanding and social behavior in verbally able children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(2), 119–130.
Warren, S. F., & Kaiser, A. P. (1986). Incidental language teaching: A critical review. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 51(4), 291–299.
Wetherby, A. M. (1986). Ontogeny of communicative functions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 16(3), 295–316.
Wetherby, A. M., Prizant, B. M., & Schuler, A. L. (2000). Understanding the nature of communication and language impairments. In A. M. Wetherby, & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders: A transactional developmental perspective. Communication and language intervention series (Vol. 9, pp. 109–141). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Wolery, M. (2000). Commentary: The environment as a source of variability: Implications for research with individuals who have autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(5), 379–381.
Wolery, M., & Garfinkle, A. N. (2002). Measures in intervention research with young children who have autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(5), 463–478.
Wright, H. F., & Barker, R. G. (1967). Recording and analyzing child behavior with ecological data from an American town. New York: Harper and Row.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the U.S. Department of Education: Research in Education of Individuals with Disabilities Program, Student Initiated Research Projects. Gratitude is extended to Shannon Lazar, Ph.D., Myrtle Scott, Ph.D., and families and staff of the Monroe, Marion, and Franklin County School Districts in Indiana.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendices
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ruble, L.A., Robson, D.M. Individual and Environmental Determinants of Engagement in Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 37, 1457–1468 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0222-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0222-y