Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

PAHs in PM2.5 in Zhengzhou: concentration, carcinogenic risk analysis, and source apportionment

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Ambient air samples were collected at two different locations between 2011 and 2012 in Zhengzhou, China in order to assess the concentration level, health risks, as well as the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particulate matter (PM2.5). The mean annual levels of PM2.5 observed at industry site and residential site were 172 ± 121 and 160 ± 72 μg m−3, respectively, which were about five times the annual value of proposed PM2.5 standard (35 μg m−3) in China. The PM2.5 in all daily samples (n = 47) exceeds the proposed PM2.5 standard in China (75 μg m−3) at both industrial and residential sites. Seasonal variations of PM2.5 showed a clear trend of winter > autumn > spring > summer at both sites. The total concentrations of 16 PM2.5-associated PAHs ranged from 61 ± 51 to 431 ± 281 and 38 ± 25 to 254 ± 189 ng m−3, with mean value of 176 ± 233 and 111 ± 146 ng m−3 at industry and residential sites, respectively. The major species were fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[k]fluoranthene, and the concentration levels of PAHs in PM2.5 were higher in winter than those of other seasons at both sites. The annual mean values of toxicity equivalency concentrations of ∑16PAHs in PM2.5 were 22.8 and 13.5 ng m−3 in industry and residential area, respectively. In this study, the risk level of adult citizens through inhalation exposure to PAHs was calculated. The average estimates of lifetime inhalation cancer risks were approximately 8.9 × 10−7 and 6.3 × 10−7 for industry and residential sites, respectively. The main sources of 16 PAHs from both diagnostic ratios and principle component analysis identified as vehicular emissions and coal combustion.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akyüz, M., & Çabuk, H. (2008). Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Zonguldak, Turkey. Science of the Total Environment, 405(1), 62–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akyüz, M., & Çabuk, H. (2009). Meteorological variations of PM2. 5/PM10 concentrations and particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Zonguldak, Turkey. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 170(1), 13–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bai, Z., Hu, Y., Yu, H., Wu, N., & You, Y. (2009). Quantitative health risk assessment of inhalation exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on citizens in Tianjin, China. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 83(2), 151–154.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bourotte, C., Forti, M. C., Taniguchi, S., Bícego, M. C., & Lotufo, P. A. (2005). A wintertime study of PAHs in fine and coarse aerosols in São Paulo city, Brazil. Atmospheric Environment, 39(21), 3799–3811.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, K. F., Fang, G. C., Chen, J. C., & Wu, Y. S. (2006). Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Asia: a review from 1999 to 2004. Environmental Pollution, 142(3), 388–396.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S. C., & Liao, C. M. (2006). Health risk assessment on human exposed to environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution sources. Science of the Total Environment, 366(1), 112–123.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., Sheng, G., Bi, X., Feng, Y., Mai, B., & Fu, J. (2005). Emission factors for carbonaceous particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from residential coal combustion in China. Environmental Science and Technology, 39(6), 1861–1867.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, J., Yuan, T., Wu, Q., Zhao, W., Xie, H., Ma, Y., et al. (2007). PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and cancer risk estimation in the atmosphere surrounding an industrial area of Shanghai, China. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 183(1–4), 437–446.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cotham, W. E., & Bidleman, T. F. (1995). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in air at an urban and a rural site near Lake Michigan. Environmental Science and Technology, 29(11), 2782–2789.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, W. J., Louie, P. K. K., Liu, W. K., Bi, X. H., Fu, J. M., & Wong, M. H. (2006). Atmospheric levels and cytotoxicity of PAHs and heavy metals in TSP and PM2.5 at an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China. Atmospheric Environment, 40(36), 6945–6955.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ding, X., Wang, X. M., Xie, Z. Q., Xiang, C. H., Mai, B. X., Sun, L. G., et al. (2007). Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons observed over the North Pacific Ocean and the Arctic area: Spatial distribution and source identification. Atmospheric Environment, 41(10), 2061–2072.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., Brauer, M., Kahn, R., Levy, R., Verduzco, C., & Villeneuve, P. J. (2010). Global estimates of ambient fine particulate matter concentrations from satellite-based aerosol optical depth: development and application. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(6), 847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eiguren-Fernandez, A., Miguel, A. H., Froines, J. R., Thurairatnam, S., & Avol, E. L. (2004). Seasonal and spatial variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vapor-phase and PM2.5 in Southern California urban and rural communities. Aerosol Science and Technology, 38(5), 447–455.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, G. C., Wu, Y. S., Chen, J. C., Fu, P. P. C., Chang, C. N., Ho, T. T., et al. (2005). Characteristic study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for fine and coarse particulates at Pastureland near Industrial Park sampling site of central Taiwan. Chemosphere, 60(3), 427–433.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galarneau, E. (2008). Source specificity and atmospheric processing of airborne PAHs: implications for source apportionment. Atmospheric Environment, 42(35), 8139–8149.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, Z., Lin, T., Zhang, G., Hu, L., & Zheng, M. (2009). Occurrence and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and n-alkanes in PM2.5 in the roadside environment of a major city in China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 170(2), 888–894.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. M., Smith, D. J. T., & Luhana, L. (1996). Source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collected from an urban location in Birmingham, UK. Environmental Science and Technology, 30(3), 825–832.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Health Canada (2004). Federal contaminated site risk assessment in Canada. Part II: Health Canada toxicological reference values (TRVS) . Health Canada, Ottawa.

  • Hong, H., Yin, H., Wang, X., & Ye, C. (2007). Seasonal variation of PM10-bound PAHs in the atmosphere of Xiamen, China. Atmospheric Research, 85, 429–441.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, Y., Bai, Z., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Yu, Q., & Zhu, T. (2007). Health risk assessment for traffic policemen exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Tianjin, China. Science of the Total Environment, 382(2), 240–250.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IARC (2010). Some non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures. In: IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 92. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon.

  • Kaur, S., Senthilkumar, K., Verma, V. K., Kumar, B., Kumar, S., Katnoria, J. K., et al. (2013). Preliminary analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in air particles (PM10) in Amritsar, India: Sources, apportionment and possible risk implications to humans. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 65(3), 382–395.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kavouras, I. G., Lawrence, J., Koutrakis, P., Stephanou, E. G., & Oyola, P. (1999). Measurement of particulate aliphatic and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in Santiago de Chile: source reconciliation and evaluation of sampling artifacts. Atmospheric Environment, 33(30), 4977–4986.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalili, N. R., Scheff, P. A., & Holsen, T. M. (1995). PAH source fingerprints for coke ovens, diesel and, gasoline engines, highway tunnels and wood combustion emissions. Atmospheric Environment, 29(4), 533–542.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kong, S., Ding, X., Bai, Z., Han, B., Chen, L., Shi, J., & Li, Z. (2010). A seasonal study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 and PM2.5–10 in five typical cities of Liaoning Province, China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 183(1), 70–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Zhang, G., Li, X. D., Qi, S. H., Liu, G. Q., & Peng, X. Z. (2006). Source seasonality of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a subtropical city Guangzhou, South China. Science of the Total Environment, 355(1), 145–155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Z., Porter, E. N., Sjödin, A., Needham, L. L., Lee, S., Russell, A. G., & Mulholland, J. A. (2009). Characterization of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Atlanta-Seasonal variations at urban, suburban and rural ambient air monitoring sites. Atmospheric Environment, 43(27), 4187–4193.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liao, C. M., & Chiang, K. C. (2006). Probabilistic risk assessment for personal exposure to carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Taiwanese temples. Chemosphere, 63(9), 1610–1619.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, F., Xu, Y., Liu, J., Liu, D., Li, J., Zhang, G., et al. (2013). Atmospheric deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to a coastal site of Hong Kong, South China. Atmospheric Environment, 69, 265–272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maliszewska-Kordybach, B. (1999). Sources concentrations fate and effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment. Part A: PAHs in air. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 8, 131–136.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martuzevicius, D., Kliucininkas, L., Prasauskas, T., Krugly, E., Kauneliene, V., & Strandberg, B. (2011). Resuspension of particulate matter and PAHs from street dust. Atmospheric Environment, 45(2), 310–317.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masclet, P., Bresson, M. A., & Mouvier, G. (1987). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emitted by power stations and influence of combustion conditions. Fuel, 66(4), 556–562.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, I. C., & LaGoy, P. K. (1992). Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 16(3), 290–300.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okada, K., Ikegami, M., Zaizen, Y., Makino, Y., Jensen, J. B., & Gras, J. L. (2001). The mixture state of individual aerosol particles in the 1997 Indonesian haze episode. Journal of Aerosol Science, 32(11), 1269–1279.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S. S., Kim, Y. J., & Kang, C. H. (2002). Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Seoul, Korea. Atmospheric Environment, 36(17), 2917–2924.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindra, K., Bencs, L., Wauters, E., De Hoog, J., Deutsch, F., Roekens, E., et al. (2006). Seasonal and site-specific variation in vapour and aerosol phase PAHs over Flanders (Belgium) and their relation with anthropogenic activities. Atmospheric Environment, 40(4), 771–785.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindra, K., Sokhi, R., & Van Grieken, R. (2008). Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmospheric Environment, 42(13), 2895–2921.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubailo, A. I., & Oberenko, A. V. (2008). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as priority pollutants. Journal of Siberian Federal University. Chemistry, 4(1), 344–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarkar, S., & Khillare, P. S. (2013). Profile of PAHs in the inhalable particulate fraction: source apportionment and associated health risks in a tropical megacity. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(2), 1199–1213.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K., Roller, M., Kalberlah, F., & Schuhmacher‐Wolz, U. (2002). Cancer risk assessment for oral exposure to PAH mixtures. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 22(1), 73–83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simcik, M. F., Eisenreich, S. J., & Lioy, P. J. (1999). Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmospheric Environment, 33(30), 5071–5079.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. J. T., & Harrison, R. M. (1996). Concentrations, trends and vehicle source profile of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the UK atmosphere. Atmospheric Environment, 30(14), 2513–2525.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (1989) Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I. Human health evaluation manual (part A). EPA 540-1-89-002, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. USEPA, Washington

  • Vasilakos, C., Levi, N., Maggos, T., Hatzianestis, J., Michopoulos, J., & Helmis, C. (2007). Gas–particle concentration and characterization of sources of PAHs in the atmosphere of a suburban area in Athens, Greece. Journal of hazardous materials, 140(1), 45–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, X., Chen, J., Tian, F., Sun, W., Yang, F., & Saiki, K. (2006). Source apportionment of PAHs in atmospheric particulates of Dalian: factor analysis with nonnegative constraints and emission inventory analysis. Atmospheric Environment, 40(34), 6666–6675.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X., Cheng, H., Xu, X., Zhuang, G., & Zhao, C. (2008). A wintertime study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 and PM2.5–10 in Beijing: assessment of energy structure conversion. Journal of hazardous materials, 157(1), 47–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2000). Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. In: Air quality guidelines for Europe, second edition. (Chapter 5.9). World Health Organization, Geneva.

  • WHO (2006). Particulate matter. In: WHO air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, global update 2005, Summary of Risk Assessment (pp. 9–13). World Health Organization, Geneva.

  • Xia, Z., Duan, X., Tao, S., Qiu, W., Liu, D., Wang, Y., et al. (2013). Pollution level, inhalation exposure and lung cancer risk of ambient atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Taiyuan, China. Environmental Pollution, 173, 150–156.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, W., Chen, H., Li, D., Zhao, F., & Yang, Y. (2013). A case study of aerosol characteristics during a haze episode over Beijing. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 18, 404–411.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yunker, M. B., Macdonald, R. W., Vingarzan, R., Mitchell, R. H., Goyette, D., & Sylvestre, S. (2002). PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Organic Geochemistry, 33(4), 489–515.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., & Tao, S. (2009). Global atmospheric emission inventory of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for 2004. Atmospheric Environment, 43(4), 812–819.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, Y., Yang, L., Yuan, Q., Yan, C., Dong, C., Meng, C., et al. (2014). Airborne particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution in a background site in the North China Plain: concentration, size distribution, toxicity and sources. Science of The Total Environment, 466, 357–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study is part of the Science and Technology Plan Project in Zhengzhou funded by Henan Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs and Science and Technology Bureau of Zhengzhou City (Grant N. 111PCXTD 165 and 122OYSG2824).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Institute of Environmental Science, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China

    Jia Wang, Ning Bo Geng, Yi Fei Xu, Wen Ding Zhang, Xiao Yan Tang & Rui Qin Zhang

Authors
  1. Jia Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ning Bo Geng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yi Fei Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wen Ding Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xiao Yan Tang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rui Qin Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rui Qin Zhang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wang, J., Geng, N.B., Xu, Y.F. et al. PAHs in PM2.5 in Zhengzhou: concentration, carcinogenic risk analysis, and source apportionment. Environ Monit Assess 186, 7461–7473 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3940-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3940-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation