Abstract
To investigate the health effects of fine particulate matter (≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter; PM2.5)-bound heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) before and after the implementation of the Urban Natural Gas Heating Project (UNGHP), the lifetime cancer risks, hazard quotients (HQs) of heavy metals and PAHs were calculated. Seven kinds of heavy metals (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Se) and 12 kinds of PAHs including acenaphthylene (ANY), acenaphthene (ANA), fluoranthene (FLT), pyrene (PYR), chrysene (CHR), benz[a]anthracene (BaA), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA), benzo[ghi]perylene (BPE) and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IPY) were analyzed and used for the health risk assessments. It was found that HQ of Mn fell from 1.09 in the coal-burning period to 0.72 in the gas-burning period in the suburban area. And lifetime cancer risks of PAHs fell from 35.7 × 10–6 in the coal-burning period to 17.22 × 10–6 in the gas-burning period in the urban area. It could be concluded that, during the gas-burning period, downward trends were observed for the lifetime cancer risks and HQs of most kinds of heavy metals and PAHs in all regions of Tianjin compared to those during the coal-burning period. The UNGHP was effective, and we should also take other measures to control the pollution.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
The datasets are analyzed during the current study but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Ali, N., Ismail, I. M. I., Khoder, M., Shamy, M., Alghamdi, M., Al Khalaf, A., & Costa, M. (2017). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the settled dust of automobile workshops, health and carcinogenic risk evaluation. Science of the Total Environment, 601–602, 478–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.110
Bach, P. B., Kelley, M. J., Tate, R. C., & McCrory, D. C. (2003). Screening for lung cancer: A review of the current literature. Chest, 123(1 Suppl), 72s–82s. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.123.1_suppl.72s
Bragato, M., Joshi, K., Carlson, J. B., Tenório, J. A. S., & Levendis, Y. A. (2012). Combustion of coal, bagasse and blends thereof: Part I: Emissions from batch combustion of fixed beds of fuels. Fuel, 96, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.12.072
Breivik, K., Alcock, R., Li, Y. F., Bailey, R. E., Fiedler, H., & Pacyna, J. M. (2004). Primary sources of selected POPs: regional and global scale emission inventories. Environmental Pollution, 128(1–2), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2003.08.031
Chang, J., Shen, J., Tao, J., Li, N., & Wang, Q. (2019). The impact of heating season factors on eight PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations and cancer risk in Beijing. Science of the Total Environment, 688, 1413–1421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.149
Chen, C., Wang, B., Fu, Q., Green, C., & Streets, D. G. (2006). Reductions in emissions of local air pollutants and co-benefits of Chinese energy policy: A Shanghai case study. Energy Policy, 34(6), 754–762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2004.07.007
Chen, J., Yang, L., Qian, Z., Sun, M., Yu, H., Ma, X., Wan, C., & Yang, Y. (2020). Cluster analysis of differences in medical economic burden among residents of different economic levels in Guangdong Province China. BMC Health Services Research, 20(1), 988. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05817-y
Debajyoti, G., Shreya, G., Dutta, T. K., & Youngho, A. (2016). current state of knowledge in microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1369. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01369
Eaton, F. J. (1969). Clean air and natural gas. Royal Society of Health Journal, 89(4), 185. https://doi.org/10.1177/146642406908900409
Feng, B., Li, L., Xu, H., Wang, T., Wu, R., Chen, J., Zhang, Y., Liu, S., Ho, S. S. H., Cao, J., & Huang, W. (2019). PM(2.5)-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Beijing: Seasonal variations, sources and risk assessment. Journal of Environmental Sciences., 77(3), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.12.025
Hassanvand, M. S., Naddafi, K., Faridi, S., Nabizadeh, R., Sowlat, M. H., Momeniha, F., Gholampour, A., Arhami, M., Kashani, H., & Zare, A. (2015). Characterization of PAHs and metals in indoor/outdoor PM10/PM2.5/PM1 in a retirement home and a school dormitory. Science of the Total Environment, 527–528, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.001
He, X., Chen, Y., Zhang, C., Gong, W., Zhang, X., & Nie, S. (2018). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) in polluted air changes miRNA profile related to cardiovascular disease. Medical Science Monitor., 24, 5925–5934. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.908106
Hong, Y., Chen, J., Zhang, F., Zhang, H., Xu, L., Yin, L., & Chen, Y. (2015). Effects of urbanization on gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in a coastal city, China: Levels, sources, and health risks. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 22(19), 14919–14931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4616-2
Hu, R., Liu, G., Zhang, H., Xue, H., Wang, X., & Wang, R. (2017). Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of Hefei, China: levels, characterizations and health risks. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 74(3), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0472-z
Kazemiparkouhi, F., Eum, K. D., Wang, B., Manjourides, J., & Suh, H. H. (2019). Long-term ozone exposures and cause-specific mortality in a US Medicare cohort. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 30(4), 650–658. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0135-4
Kim, J. Y., Lee, J. Y., Choi, S. D., Kim, Y. P., & Ghim, Y. S. (2012). Gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at the Gosan background site in East Asia. Atmospheric Environment, 49, 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.11.029
Kulkarni, P., & Venkataraman, C. J. A. E. (2000). Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai India. Atmospheric Environment, 34(17), 2785–2790. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00312-X
Li, X., Wang, Y., Guo, X., & Wang, Y. (2013). Seasonal variation and source apportionment of organic and inorganic compounds in PM2.5 and PM10 particulates in Beijing. China. Journal of Environmental Sciences., 25(4), 741–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(12)60121-1
Li, Y., Liu, X., Liu, M., Li, X., Meng, F., Wang, J., Yan, W., Lin, X., Zhu, J., & Qin, Y. (2016a). Investigation on atmospheric PM2.5-borne PAHs in Eastern cities of China: concentration, source diagnosis and health risk assessment. Journal of Environmental Sciences., 18(5), 529–537. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6em00012f
Li, Y., Zhang, Z., Liu, H., Zhou, H., Fan, Z., Lin, M., Wu, D., & Xia, B. (2016b). Characteristics, sources and health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals in PM2.5 at a megacity of southwest China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 38(2), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9722-z
Liao, H. T., Chou, C. C., Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Hopke, P. K., & Wu, C. F. (2015). Source and risk apportionment of selected VOCs and PM2.5 species using partially constrained receptor models with multiple time resolution data. Environmental Pollution, 205, 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.05.035
Lin, N., Chen, Y., Du, W., Shen, G., Zhu, X., Huang, T., Wang, X., Cheng, H., Liu, J., & Xue, C. (2016). Inhalation exposure and risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) among the rural population adopting wood gasifier stoves compared to different fuel-stove users. Atmospheric Environment, 147, 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.10.033
Liu, P., Zhang, Y., Wu, T., Shen, Z., & Xu, H. (2019). Acid-extractable heavy metals in PM 2.5 over Xi’an, China: seasonal distribution and meteorological influence. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(33), 34357–34367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06366-6
Liu, T., Tian, Y., Xue, Q., Wei, Z., Qian, Y., & Feng, Y. (2018). An advanced three-way factor analysis model (SDABB model) for size-resolved PM source apportionment constrained by size distribution of chemical species in source profiles. Environmental Pollution, 242(Pt B), 1606–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.118
Liu, Z., Hu, B., Zhang, J., Yu, Y., & Wang, Y. (2016). Characteristics of aerosol size distributions and chemical compositions during wintertime pollution episodes in Beijing. Atmospheric Environment, 168, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.08.013
Maftei, A. E., Buzatu, A., Buzgar, N., & Apopei, A. I. (2019). Spatial Distribution of Minor Elements in the Tazlău River Sediments: Source Identification and Evaluation of Ecological Risk. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(23), 4664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234664
Meng, J., Wang, W., Li, L., Yin, Q., & Zhang, G. (2017). Cadmium effects on DNA and protein metabolism in oyster (Crassostrea gigas) revealed by proteomic analyses. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 11716. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11894-7
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. EPA-540-R-070–002. Human Health Evaluation Manual. Volume I. Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, USEPA, Washington.
Park, E. J., Kim, D. S., & Park, K. (2008). Monitoring of ambient particles and heavy metals in a residential area of Seoul Korea. Environmental Monitoring & Assessment, 137(1–3), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9779-y
Peng, X., Shi, G. L., Liu, G. R., Xu, J., & Russell, A. G. (2016). Source apportionment and heavy metal health risk (HMHR) quantification from sources in a southern city in China, using an ME2-HMHR model. Environmental Pollution, 221, 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.083
Raysoni, A. U., Armijos, R. X., Weigel, M. M., Echanique, P., Racines, M., Pingitore, N. E., & Li, W. W. (2017). Evaluation of sources and patterns of elemental composition of PM(2.5) at three low-income neighborhood schools and residences in Quito, Ecuador. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(7), 674. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070674
Sarigiannis, D. A., Karakitsios, S. P., Zikopoulos, D., Nikolaki, S., & Kermenidou, M. (2015). Lung cancer risk from PAHs emitted from biomass combustion. Environmental Research, 137, 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.12.009
Sina, T., Mohammad, S., Mohammad, S., Hassanvand, M. S., & Yunesian, M. (2018). Source-specific lung cancer risk assessment of ambient PM<sub>2.5</sub>-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in central Tehran. Environment International, 120, 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.003
Sosa, B. S., Porta, A., Lerner, J. E. C., Noriega, R. B., & Massolo, L. (2017). Human health risk due to variations in PM10-PM2.5 and associated PAHs levels. Atmospheric Environment, 160, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.04.004
Tang, Q., Liu, G., Zhou, C., Zhang, H., & Sun, R. (2013). Distribution of environmentally sensitive elements in residential soils near a coal-fired power plant: Potential risks to ecology and children’s health. Chemosphere, 93(10), 2473–2479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.09.015
Thakur, L. S. (2013). Heavy metal Cu, Ni and Zn: Toxicity, health hazards and their removal techniques by low cost adsorbents: A short overview. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 3(3), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-38552-9_2
Turap, Y., Talifu, D., Wang, X., Aierken, T., & Liu, W. (2018). Concentration characteristics, source apportionment, and oxidative damage of PM2.5-bound PAHs in petrochemical region in Xinjiang, NW China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 25(7521), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2082-3
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. Risk Assessment Forum. EPA/630/R-98/002(Washington, DC).
Wang, J., Ho, S. S. H., Huang, R., Gao, M., Liu, S., Zhao, S., Cao, J., Wang, G., Shen, Z., & Han, Y. (2016). Characterization of parent and oxygenated-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Xi’an, China during heating period: An investigation of spatial distribution and transformation. Chemosphere, 159, 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.033
Wang, J., Hu, Z., Chen, Y., Chen, Z., & Xu, S. (2013). Contamination characteristics and possible sources of PM10 and PM_(2.5) in different functional areas of Shanghai China. Atmospheric Environment, 68, 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.10.070
Wu, D., Wang, Z., Chen, J., Kong, S., Fu, X., Deng, H., Shao, G., & Wu, G. (2014). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmospheric PM2.5 and PM10 at a coal-based industrial city: Implication for PAH control at industrial agglomeration regions China. Atmospheric Research, 149, 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.06.012
Xia, Z., Duan, X., Tao, S., Qiu, W., Liu, D., Wang, Y., Wei, S., Wang, B., Jiang, Q., Lu, B., Song, Y., & Hu, X. (2013). Pollution level, inhalation exposure and lung cancer risk of ambient atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Taiyuan, China. Environmental Pollution, 173, 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.10.009
Yan, D., Lei, Y., Shi, Y., Zhu, Q., Li, L., & Zhang, Z. (2018). Evolution of the spatiotemporal pattern of PM2.5 concentrations in China – A case study from the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. Atmospheric Environment, 183, 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.03.041
Yu, L. D., Wang, G. F., Zhang, R. J., Zhang, L. M., Song, Y., Wu, B. B., Li, X. F., An, K., & Chu, J. H. (2013). Characterization and source apportionment of PM2.5 in an urban environment in Beijing. Aerosol & Air Quality Research, 13(2), 574–583. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2012.07.0192
Zhang, J., Feng, L., Hou, C., & Gu, Q. (2020). How the constituents of fine particulate matter and ozone affect the lung function of children in Tianjin China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 42(1), 3303–3316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00574-7
Zhang, J., Zhou, X., Wang, Z., Yang, L., Wang, J., & Wang, W. (2018). Trace elements in PM(2.5) in Shandong Province: Source identification and health risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 621, 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.292
Zhao, Y., Feng, L., Shang, B., Li, J., Lv, G., & Wu, Y. (2019). Pollution characterization and source apportionment of day and night PM(2.5) samples in Urban and Suburban communities of Tianjin (China). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 76(4), 591–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00614-z
Zhu, Y., Tao, S., Sun, J., Wang, X., Li, X., Tsang, D. C. W., Zhu, L., Shen, G., Huang, H., Cai, C., & Liu, W. (2019). Multimedia modeling of the PAH concentration and distribution in the Yangtze River Delta and human health risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 647, 962–972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.075
Zhu, Y., Yang, L., Yuan, Q., Yan, C., Dong, C., Meng, C., Sui, X., Yao, L., Yang, F., Lu, Y., & Wang, W. (2014). Airborne particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution in a background site in the North China Plain: Concentration, size distribution, toxicity and sources. Science of the Total Environment, 466–467, 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.030
Acknowledgements
We would also like to thank Dr. Xiaoyu Chen (Monash University, Australia.) for the language editing service.
Funding
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Jingwei Zhang contributed to data curation, writing—original draft preparation. Yan Zhao contributed to data curation. Lihong Feng contributed to writing—review and editing. Changchun Hou contributed to writing—review and editing. Qing Gu contributed to supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
Ethics approval
This is an observational study. The Ethics Committee of Tianjin Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention has confirmed that no ethical approval is required. And no approval of the Ethics Committee of Tianjin Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention was required to accomplish the goals of this study because animals, their data or biological material were all not involved in our study.
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent for publication
The participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, J., Feng, L., Zhao, Y. et al. Health risks of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and heavy metals (PPAH&HM) during the replacement of central heating with urban natural gas in Tianjin, China. Environ Geochem Health 44, 2495–2514 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01040-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01040-8