Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Contemplation in the Classroom: a New Direction for Improving Childhood Education

  • Essay
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research with adults suggests that contemplative practices such as meditation and yoga impart a variety of benefits, from improved attention to reduced stress. Increasingly, these practices are being adapted for use with children and introduced into childhood education in order to foster the development of key self-regulation skills required for academic achievement and emotional well-being. This article reviews empirical evidence that supports the introduction of contemplative practices into childhood education. Directions for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review, 106, 529–550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, self-regulation, and time: toward a more comprehensive theory. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 18(4), 271–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biegel, G. M., Brown, K. W., Shapiro, S. L., & Schubert, C. M. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for the treatment of adolescent psychiatric outpatients: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 855–866.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, K. L., & Welsh, J. A. (1997). Social relationship deficits. In E. J. Mash & G. Lief (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (3rd edition) (pp. 328–365). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., Nelson, K. E., & Gill, S. (2008). Promoting academic and social–emotional school readiness: the head start REDI program. Child Development, 79, 1802–1817.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, K. A., Denham, S. A., Kochanoff, A., & Whipple, B. (2004). Playing it cool: temperament, emotion regulation, and social behavior in preschoolers. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 419–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boegels, S., Hoogstad, B., van Dun, L., de Schutter, S., & Restifo, K. (2008). Mindfulness training for adolescents with externalizing disorders and their parents. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36(2), 193–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryck, R. L., & Fisher, P. A. (2012). Training the brain: practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science. American Psychologist, 67, 87–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, C. A. (2010). Mindfulness-based approaches with children and adolescents: a preliminary review of current research in an emergent field. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 133–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R., Lo, B. C. Y., & Allen, N. B. (2008). The impact of intensive mindfulness training on attentional control, cognitive style, and affect. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 303–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coulumbe, S., Davies, B., Howe, K., Potts, A., Ryan, C. & Day, D.S. (2011). Desired and perceived outcomes related to an elementary school classroom-based yoga program as a basis for quantitative research studies. Abstract presented at the International Association of Yoga Therapists, September, 2011, Kripalu Center.

  • Cowger, E. L., & Torrance, E. P. (1982). Further examination of the qualifying of changes in creative functioning resulting from meditation (Zazen) training. Creative Child & Adult Quarterly, 7, 211–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R. J. (2010). Empirical explorations of mindfulness: conceptual and methodological issues. Emotion, 10, 8–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333, 959–964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Peter, M. G. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eigsti, I., Zayas, V., Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., Ayduk, O., Dadlani, M. B., & Casey, B. J. (2006). Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science, 17(6), 478–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2002). The role of emotionality and regulation in children’s social competence and adjustment. In L. Pulkkinen & A. Caspi (Eds.), Paths to successful development: personality in the life course (pp. 46–70). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L., & Flavell, E. R. (1995). Young children’s knowledge about thinking. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 60, 1–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L., & Flavell, E. R. (2000). Development of children’s awareness of their own thoughts. Journal of Cognition and Development, 1, 97–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flook, L., Smalley, S. L., Kitil, M. J., Galla, B. M., Kaiser-Greenland, S., Locke, J., Ishijima, E., & Kasari, C. (2010). Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 26, 70–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10, 83–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39, 281–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J. C. (2010). Yoga therapy in practice: teaching Yoga in urban elementary schools. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 20, 100–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, T. (2004). Opening the contemplative mind in the classroom. Journal of Transformative Education, 2, 28–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heeren, A., Van Broeck, N., & Philippot, P. (2009). The effects of mindfulness on executive processes and autobiographical memory specificity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 403–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2011). Individual differences in growth in executive function across the transition to school predict externalizing and internalizing behaviors and self-perceived academic success at 6 years of age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 663–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huppert, F. A., & Johnson, D. M. (2010). A controlled trial of mindfulness training in schools: the importance of practice for an impact on well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 264–274. doi:10.1080/17439761003794148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huttenlocher, P. R. (2002). Neural plasticity: The effects of environment on the development of the cerebral cortex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(25), 10081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jha, A. J., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 109–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, A. E., Forston, J. L., Gunnar, M. R., & Zelazo, P. D. (2012). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation training in preschool children. Submitted.

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser-Greenland, S. (2010). The mindful child. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapur, S., Craik, F. I. M., Tulving, E., Wilson, A. A., Houle, S., & Brown, G. M. (1994). Neuroanatomical correlates of encoding in episodic memory: levels of processing effect. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 2008–2111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lantieri, L. (2008). Building emotional intelligence: techniques to cultivate inner strength in children. Boulder, CO: Sounds True.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liehr, P., & Diaz, N. (2010). A pilot study examining the effect of mindfulness on depression and anxiety for minority children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24, 69–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, K. E., & Ghetti, S. (2010). Metacognitive development in early childhood: new questions about old assumptions. In A. Efklides & P. Misailidi (Eds.), Trends and prospects in metacognition research (pp. 259–278). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Marcovitch, S., Jacques, S., Boseovski, J. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2008). Self-reflection and the cognitive control of behavior: implications for learning. Mind Brain and Education, 2, 136–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 947–959.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendelson, T., Greenberg, M. T., Dariotis, J. K., Gould, L. F., Rhoades, B. L., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness intervention for urban youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 985–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metis Associates (2011). Building inner resilience in teachers and their students: results of the inner resilience pilot program. Retrieved on 12-3-2012 from http://innerresilience.org/ documents/IRP_Pilot_Program_Results_AERA2011_updated_6.9.pdf.

  • Miller, Richard C., Butler, Britta (2011). iRest For Kids. Integrative Restoration Institute, 900 5th Ave., Suite 203, San Rafael, CA 94901. See also: www.irest.us/node/338.

  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 108(7), 2693–2698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Napoli, M., Krech, P. R., & Holley, L. C. (2005). Mindfulness training for elementary school students: the attention academy. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 21, 99–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nidich, S. I., Ryncarz, R. A., Abrams, A. I., Orme-Johnson, D. W., & Wallace, R. K. (1983). Kohlbergian cosmic perspective responses, EEG coherence, and the TM and TM-Sidhi program. Journal of Moral Education, 12, 166–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nidich, S. M., Shujaa Nidich, R., Rainforth, M., Grant, J., Valosek, L., Chang, W., & Zigler, R. L. (2011). Academic achievement and transcendental meditation: a study with at-risk urban middle school students. Education, 131(3), 556–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortner, C. N. M., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 271–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orzech, K., Shapiro, S. L., & Brown, K. (2009). Intensive mindfulness training-related changes in cognitive and emotional experience. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(3), 212–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081–1105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. (2010). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an intergrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramani, G. B., Brownell, C. A., & Campbell, S. B. (2010). Positive and negative peer interaction in 3- and 4-year-olds in relation to regulation and dysregulation. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 171, 218–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raver, C. C. (2004). Placing emotional self-regulation in sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts. Child Development, 75, 346–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (1995). Emotionality, emotion regulation, and preschoolers’ social adaptation. Development and Psychopathology. Special Issues: Emotions in developmental psychopathology, 7, 49–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccomanno, L., & Posner, M. I. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 14931–14936.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saltzman, A., & Goldin, P. (2008). Mindfulness based stress reduction for school-age children. In S. C. Hayes & L. A. Greco (Eds.), Acceptance and mindfulness interventions for children, adolescents and families (pp. 139–161). Oakland, CA: Context Press/New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science, 273, 749–750.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semple, R. J., Lee, J., Rosa, D., & Miller, L. F. (2010). A randomized trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children: promoting mindful attention to enhance social–emotional resiliency in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 218–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., & Carlson, L. E. (2009). The art and science of mindfulness: integrating mindfulness into psychology and the helping professions. Washington, D.C.: American Psychology Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Bonner, G. (1998). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on medical and premedical students. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 581–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Astin, J. A., Bishop, S. R., & Cordova, M. (2005). Mindfulness based stress reduction for health care professionals: results from a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 164–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., & Beigel, G. M. (2006). Teaching self-care to caregivers: Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the mental health of mental health therapists in training. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 1, 105–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S.L., Jazzeri, H., Golden, P. (2012). Effects of mindfulness training on ethics. Mindfulness, 2-12.

  • Slagter, H. A., Lutz, A., Greisschar, L. L., Nieuwenhuis, S., & Davidson, R. J. (2009). Theta phase synchrony and conscious target perception: impact of intensive mental training. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 1536–1549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slagter, H. A., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2011). Mental training as a tool in the neuroscientific study of brain and cognitive plasticity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • So, K., & Orme-Johnson, D. W. (2001). Three randomized experiments on the longitudinal effects of the transcendental meditation technique on cognition. Intelligence, 29, 419–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, J. (2008). The fundamentals of brain development: integrating nature and nurture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Moore, R. G., Hayhurst, H., Pope, M., Williams, S., & Segal, Z. V. (2002). Metacognitive awareness and prevention of relapse in depression: empirical evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 275–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Oord, S., Bögels, S. M., & Peijnenburg, D. (2012). The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with ADHD and mindful parenting for their parents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(1), 139–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue. The American Psychologist, 61(3), 227–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75, 523–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wisner, B., Jones, B., & Gwin, D. (2010). School-based meditation practices for adolescents: a resource for strengthening self-regulation, emotional coping, and self-esteem. Children & Schools, 32, 150–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 19, 597–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D. (2004). The development of conscious control in childhood. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 12–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Lyons, K. E. (2012). The potential benefits of mindfulness training in early childhood: a developmental social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 154–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003). The development of executive function in early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68(3), Serial No. 274.

  • Zylowska, L., Ackerman, D. L., Yang, M. H., Futrell, J. L., Horton, N. L., Hale, T. S., Pataki, C., & Smalley, S. L. (2008). Mindfulness meditation training in adults and adolescents with ADHD: a feasibility study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 737–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Baumann Institute for providing funding for the preparation of this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Shauna L. Shapiro or Philip David Zelazo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Shapiro, S.L., Lyons, K.E., Miller, R.C. et al. Contemplation in the Classroom: a New Direction for Improving Childhood Education. Educ Psychol Rev 27, 1–30 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9265-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9265-3

Keywords

Navigation