Abstract
Since the Columbine High School-massacre, the world continues to witness school shootings. The current state of research presents us with nuanced categories for understanding the phenomenon, such as the school shooters’ use of media, their psychological features, and their intentions. Similarly, the discussion of preventive measures is equally bountiful. While there are a number of empirical studies that are related to digitalization, a gap in how we theorize the meaning of digitalization persists. Our aim is to provide an integrated synthesis needed for understanding school shootings in the digital era. Via a narrative literature review, we identified three explanatory themes, namely strain, imitation, and digital mediation. These were synthesized in order to explain more thoroughly how individuals come to participate in online school shooting subculture, possibly leading to their perpetration of school shootings. Based on this, a model is presented that excels in its focus on the ever more prominent role of digitality in everyday life as well as in its broad social science and behavioral explanations. Finally, the article provides potential venues for further research along with prevention strategies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Abrutyn, S., & Mueller, A. S. (2014). Reconsidering Durkheim’s assessment of tarde: Formalizing a Tardian theory of imitation, contagion, and suicide suggestion. Sociological Forum, 29(3), 698–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12110
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a generalism strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88.
Auxemery, Y. (2015). The mass murderer history: Modern classifications, sociodemographic and psychopathological characteristics, suicidal dimensions, and media contagion of mass murders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 56, 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.09.003
Becker, H. S. (1953). Becoming a marihuana user. American Journal of Sociology, 59(3), 235–242.
Blum, D., & Jaworski, C. G. (2016). From suicide and strain to mass murder. Society, 53(4), 408–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-016-0035-3
Blum, D., & Jaworski, C. G. (2021). Critical mass. Understanding and fixing the social roots of mass shootings in the United States. Routledge.
Böckler, N., & Seeger, T. (2013). Revolution of the dispossessed: School shooters and their devotees on the web. In N. Böckler, T. Seeger, P. Sitzer, & W. Heitmeyer (Eds.), School Shootings (pp. 309–339). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5526-4_14
Böckler, N., Seeger, T., & Heitmeyer, W. (2011). School shooting: A double loss of control. In W. Heitmeyer, H-G. Haupt, S. Malthaner, & A. Kirschner (Eds.), Control of violence: Historical and international perspectives on violence in modern societies (pp. 261–294). Springer
Bondü, R., & Scheithauer, H. (2011b). Explaining and preventing school shootings: Chances and difficulties of control. In W. Heitmeyer, H.-G. Haupt, S. Malthaner, & A. Kirschner (Eds.), Control of violence: Historical and international perspectives on violence in modern societies (pp. 295–314). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0383-9_12
Bondü, R., & Scheithauer, H. (2011a). Amoklauf und school shooting: Bedeutung. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Brown, R. P., Osterman, L. L., & Barnes, C. D. (2009). School violence and the culture of honor. Psychological Science, 20(11), 1400–1405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02456.x
Chapin, J., & Coleman, G. (2006). Knowledge is power: A theory-based approach to reducing school violence. Journal of Family Violence, 21(6), 381–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-006-9034-2
Chung, J. E. (2013). Social interaction in online support groups: Preference for online social interaction over offline social interaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1408–1414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.019
Clarke, A. E., Friese, C., & Washburn, R. (2015). Part III. Exemplars of situational analysis research—Introduction. In A. E. Clarke, C. Friese, & R. Washburn (Eds.), Situational analysis in practice: Mapping research with grounded theory. Left Coast Press.
Clifford, B. & Powell, H. C. (2019). De-platforming and the online extremist’s dilemma. Lawfare. Retrieved December 07, 2021, from https://www.lawfareblog.com/de-platforming-and-online-extremists-dilemma
Cohen, A. K. (1965). The sociology of the deviant act: Anomie theory and beyond. American Sociological Review, 30(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/2091770
Collins, R. (2004). Interactional ritual chains. Princeton University Press.
Cork, A., Everson, R., Levine, M., & Koschate, M. (2020). Using computational techniques to study social influence online. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(6), 808–826. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220937354
DiMaggio, P., Bernier, C., Heckscher, C., & Mimno, D. (2017). Interaction ritual threads: Does IRC theory apply online? Center for the Study of Social Organization.
Farr, K. (2018). Adolescent rampage school shootings: Responses to failing masculinity performances by already-troubled boys. Gender Issues, 35(2), 73–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-017-9203-z
Fearnow, B. (2017). Who is William Atchison? New Mexico police identify Aztec high school shooter. International Business Times. Retrieved January 29, 2020, from https://www.ibtimes.com/who-william-atchison-new-mexico-police-identify-aztec-high-school-shooter-2625407?utm_content=buffer9aae7&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer
Ferrari, R. (2015). Writing narrative style literature reviews. Medical Writing, 24(4), 230–235. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480615Z.000000000329
Ferrell, J. (2017). Making trouble: Cultural constructions of crime, deviance, and control. In J. Ferrell & N. Websdale (Eds.), Making trouble: Cultural constructions of crime, deviance, and control. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203786628
Fine, G. A., & Kleinman, S. (1979). Rethinking subculture: An interactionist analysis. American Journal of Sociology, 85(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1086/226971
Gillet, R. & Suzor, N. (2021). Incels on Reddit: A study in social norms and decentralised moderation. AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research, 2021.https://doi.org/10.5210/spir.v2021i0.12171
Goldsmith, A., & Brewer, R. (2015). Digital drift and the criminal interaction order. Theoretical Criminology, 19(1), 112–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480614538645
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
Grover, H. (2018). FBI didn’t link online posts to Atchison until after Aztec school shooting. Farmington Daily Times. Retrieved January 29, 2020, from http://www.daily-times.com/story/news/local/aztec/2018/04/18/fbi-warned-aztec-police-william-atchison-brother-before-school-shooting/528737002/
Hayward, K. J. (2016). Cultural criminology: Script rewrites. Theoretical Criminology, 20(3), 297–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480615619668
Henson, B., Fisher, B. S., & Reyns, B. W. (2020). There is virtually no excuse: The frequency and predictors of college students’ bystander intervention behaviors directed at online victimization. Violence against Women, 26(5), 505–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219835050
Holkeri, E., Oksanen, A., & Räsänen, P. (2015). Crime and context: Comparing conventional and ICT-related school shooting threats. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 21(3), 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-014-9258-2
Hoyle, R. H., & Davisson, E. K. (2016). Varieties of self-control and their personality correlates. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 396–413). Guilford Publications.
Katsiyannis, A., Whitford, D. K., & Ennis, R. P. (2018). Historical examination of United States intentional mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries: Implications for students, schools, and society. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), 2562–2573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1096-2
Kellogg, J. (2018). Aztec school shooter reached out to other school shooters, planned killings online. Farmington Daily Times. Retrieved January 29, 2020, from http://www.daily-times.com/story/news/crime/2018/04/17/aztec-high-school-shooting-investigation-william-atchison/513013002/
Kiilakoski, T., & Oksanen, A. (2011a). Cultural and peer influences on homicidal violence: A Finnish perspective. New Directions for Youth Development, 2011(129), 31–42.
Kiilakoski, T., & Oksanen, A. (2011b). Soundtrack of the school shootings: Cultural script, music and male rage. Young, 19(3), 247–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/110330881101900301
Kimmel, M. S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence. The American Behavioral Scientist, 46(10), 1439–1459.
Langman, P. (2009). Rampage school shooters: A typology. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(1), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.10.003
Lankford, A. (2016a). Fame-seeking rampage shooters: Initial findings and empirical predictions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27, 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.02.002
Lankford, A. (2016b). Race and mass murder in the United States: A social and behavioral analysis. Current Sociology, 64(3), 470–490. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392115617227
Lankford, A. (2018). Do the media unintentionally make mass killers into celebrities? An assessment of free advertising and earned media value. Celebrity Studies, 9(3), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392397.2017.1422984
Lankford, A., & Madfis, E. (2018). Media coverage of mass killers: Content, consequences, and solutions. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218763476
Larkin, R. W. (2009). The Columbine legacy: Rampage shootings as political acts. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1309–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332548
Lindberg, N., Oksanen, A., Sailas, E., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2012). Adolescents expressing school massacre threats online: Something to be extremely worried about? Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6(39), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-6-39
Madfis, E. (2014). Triple entitlement and homicidal anger: An exploration of the intersectional identities of American mass murderers. Men and Masculinities, 17(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X14523432
Maloney, P. (2013). Online networks and emotional energy: How pro-anorexic websites use interaction ritual chains to (re)form identity. Information, Communication & Society, 16(1), 105–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.659197
Meindl, J. N., & Ivy, J. W. (2017). Mass shootings: The role of the media in promoting generalized imitation. American Journal of Public Health, 107(3), 368–370. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303611
Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure (1968 enlarged edition). The Free Press.
Newman, K., Fox, C., Harding, D., Mehta, J., & Roth, W. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings. Basic Books.
Newman, K., & Fox, C. (2009). Repeat tragedy: Rampage shootings in American high school and college settings, 2002–2008. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1286–1308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332546
O’Toole, M. E. (2000). The school shooter: A threat assessment perspective. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved December 12, 2021, from https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/stats-services-publications-school-shooter-school-shooter
Oksanen, A., Hawdon, J., & Räsänen, P. (2014a). Glamorizing rampage online: School shooting fan communities on YouTube. Technology in Society, 39, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2014.08.001
Oksanen, A., Kaltiala-Heino, R., Holkeri, E., & Lindberg, N. (2015). School shooting threats as a national phenomenon: Comparison of police reports and psychiatric reports in Finland. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 16(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/14043858.2015.1101823
Oksanen, A., Nurmi, J., Vuori, M., & Räsänen, P. (2013). Jokela: The social roots of a school shooting tragedy in Finland. In N. Böckler, T. Seeger, P. Sitzer, & W. Heitmeyer (Eds.), School Shootings (pp. 189–215). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5526-4_9
Oksanen, A., Räsänen, P., & Hawdon, J. (2014b). Hate groups: From offline to online social identifications. In J. Hawdon, J. Ryan & M. Lucht (Eds.), The Causes and consequences of group violence: From bullies to terrorists (pp. 21–47). Lexington Books – Rowman & Littlefield.
Paton, N., & Figeac, J. (2015). Muddled boundaries of digital shrines. Popular Communication, 13(4), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/15405702.2015.1019072
Paton, N. (2012). Media participation of school shooters and their fans: Navigating between self-distinction and imitation to achieve individuation. In G. W. Muschert & J. Sumiala (Eds.), Studies in media and communications (vol. 7, pp. 203–229). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2050-2060(2012)0000007014
Pope, M., & Englar-Carlson, M. (2001). Fathers and sons: The relationship between violence and masculinity. The Family Journal, 9(4), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480701094003
Rahman, T. (2018). Extreme overvalued beliefs: How violent extremist beliefs become “normalized”. Behavioral Sciences, 8(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8010010
Raitanen, J., & Oksanen, A. (2018). Global online subculture surrounding school shootings. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(2), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218755835
Raitanen, J., & Oksanen, A. (2019). Deep interest in school shootings and online radicalization. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 6(3–4), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000127
Ribeiro, M. H., Ottoni, R., West, R., Almeida, V. A. F., & Meira Jr., W. (2020). Auditing radicalization pathways on YouTube. Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1145/3351095.3372879
Robertz, F., & Wickenhäuser, R. (2010). Der Riss in der Tafel: Amoklauf und schwere Gewalt in der Schule (2d ed.). Springer.
Rogers, R. (2020). Deplatforming: Following extreme internet celebrities to Telegram and alternative social media. European Journal of Communication, 35(3), 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323120922066
Sandberg, S., Oksanen, A., Berntzen, L. E., & Kiilakoski, T. (2014). Stories in action: The cultural influences of school shootings on the terrorist attacks in Norway. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7(2), 277–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2014.906984
Schiele, J. H., & Stewart, R. (2001). When white boys kill: An Afrocentric analysis. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 4(4), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v04n04_03
Shon, P. C. H. (2012). “Asian really don’t do this”: On-scene offense characteristics of asian American school shooters, 91–07. Asian Journal of Criminology, 7(3), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-011-9109-8
Statt, N. (2020). Facebook reportedly ignored its own research showing algorithms divided users. The Verge. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/26/21270659/facebook-division-news-feed-algorithms
Storer, H. L., Casey, E., & Herrenkohl, T. (2016). Efficacy of bystander programs to prevent dating abuse among youth and young adults: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(3), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584361
Tonso, K. L. (2009). Violent masculinities as tropes for school shooters: The Montréal massacre, the Columbine attack, and rethinking schools. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1266–1285. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332545
Towers, S., Gomez-Lievano, A., Khan, M., Mubayi, A., & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2015). Contagion in mass killings and school shootings. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0117259. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117259
Verlinden, S., Hersen, M., & Thomas, J. (2000). Risk factors in school shootings. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(1), 3–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00055-0
Vossekuil, B., Fein, R. A., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2004). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. United States Secret Service & United States Department of Education. Retrieved December 02, 2021, from https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/preventingattacksreport.pdf
Wahlström, M., & Törnberg, A. (2019). Social media mechanisms for right-wing political violence in the 21st century: Discursive opportunities, group dynamics, and co-ordination. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1–22.https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1586676
Ye, Y., & Lin, L. (2015). Examining relations between locus of control, loneliness, subjective well-being, and preference for online social interaction. Psychological Reports, 116(1), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.2466/07.09.PR0.116k14w3
Zadrozny, B., & Collins, B. (2017). New Mexico school shooter had secret life on pro-Trump white-supremacy sites. The Daily Beast. Retrieved January 29, 2020, from https://www.thedailybeast.com/new-mexico-school-shooter-had-secret-life-on-pro-trump-white-supremacy-sites
Zadrozny, B. (2021). ‘Carl’s journey’: What Facebook knew about how it radicalized users. NBC News. Retrieved December 02, 2021, from https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-knew-radicalized-users-rcna3581
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Alexandra Curtain for her valuable comments during the drafting of this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mizrahi-Werner, J., Diederichsen, M.B., Ilsøe, B.S. et al. Pathways to School Shooting Subculture: Re-thinking Theory Across Strain, Imitation, and Digital Mediation. Eur J Crim Policy Res 30, 21–38 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-022-09513-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-022-09513-x