Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Characteristics, Complications, and Treatment

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Community Mental Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) includes a continuum of disorders that occur in children as a result of their mothers’ consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. The most severe of these disorders is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). FASD presents differently in every child, but all children with FASD have intellectual and/or behavioral impairments. There is no cure for FASD, but research shows that early intervention and life-long support help those born with FASD to manage the difficulties that come with it. This paper examines the characteristics, complications, and treatment for FASD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Avalos, L. A., Kaskutas, L., Block, G., Abrams, B., & Li, D. K. (2011). Does lack of multinutrient supplementation during early pregnancy increase vulnerability to alcohol-related preterm or small-for-gestational-age births? Maternal Child Health Journal, 15, 1324–1332.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, C. C., & Chimata, R. (2015). Prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders among low-income African Americans as a clinic on Chicago’s south side. Psychiatric Services, 66, 539–542. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201400162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, J., Floyd, R. L., Weber, M. K., O’Connor, M., Riley, E. P., Johnson, K. A., Cohen, D. E., & The National Task Force on FAS/FAE (2004). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Guidelines for referral and diagnosis. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackburn, C., Carpenter, B., & Egerton, J. (2010). Shaping the future for children with foetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Support For Learning, 25(3), 139–145. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9604.2010.01452.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burd, L. (2011). A court team model for young children in foster care: The role of prenatal alcohol exposure and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 39(1), 179–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, M. J., Dominique, Y., O’Leary, L. A., Sniezek, J. E., & Floyd, R. L. (2012). Characteristics and behaviors of mothers who have a child with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology & Teratology, 34(1), 90–95. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2011.09.010.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/index.html.

  • Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). CHOICES as a program to prevent alcohol-exposed pregnancies. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/choices-program-prevent-alcohol-exposed-pregnancies.html.

  • Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2016). Treatments. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/treatments.html.

  • Chambers, C., Yevtushok, L., Zymak-Zakutnya, N., Wertelecki, W., Jones, K. L., Keen, C. L., Uriu-Adams, J. Y. (2013). Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy, nutritional status, and impact on infant outcomes [abstract]. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 48(S1):S21–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chasnoff, I. J., Wells, A. M. & King, L. (2015). Misdiagnosis and missed diagnosis in foster and adopted children with prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics, 135, 264–270. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2014). Parental substance use and the child welfare system. Washington: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (Children’s Bureau).

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, E. J., Payne, J., Morris, A., Haan, E., & Bower, C. (2008). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A prospective national surveillance study. Archives Disease Childhood, 93, 732–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finer, L. B., & Zolna, M. R. (2011). Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception, 84(5), 478–485. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.07.013.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, J. P., Latimer, J., Carter, M., Oscar, J., Ferreira, M. L., Carmichael, O. H.,…Elliot, E. J. (2015). Prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome in a population-based sample of children living in remote Australia: The Liliwan project. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 51(4), 450–457. doi:10.1111/jpc.12814.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuglestad, A. J., Fink, B. A., Eckerle, J. K., Boys, C. J., Hoecker, H. L., Kroupina, M. G., & Wozniak, J. R. (2013). Inadequate intake of nutrients essential for neurodevelopment in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Neurotoxicology & Teratology. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2013.06.005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J. H. (2007). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: understanding the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and supporting students. Journal of School Health, 77, 103–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, D. C. (2012). Lens neurofeedback treatment with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and neglect. Journal of Neurotherapy, 16(1), 47–52. doi:10.1080/10874208.2012.650110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. K., Velasquez, M. M., & von Sternberg, K. (2015). CHOICES: An empirically supported intervention for preventing alcohol-exposed pregnancy in community settings. Research on Social Work Practice, 25(4), 488–492. doi:10.1177/1049731514543668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. (2004). Successfully raising resilient foster children with fetal alcohol syndrome: What works. Envision: The Manitoba Journal of Child Welfare, 3(1), 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kable, J. A., O’Connor, M. J., Olson, H. C., Paley, B., Mattson, S. N., Anderson, S. M., & Riley, E. P. (2016). Neurobehavioral disorder associated with prenatal alcohol exposure (ND-PAE): Proposed DSM-5 diagnosis. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47(2), 335–346. doi:10.1007/s10578-015-0566-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kully-Martens, K., Denys, K., Treit, S., Tamana, S., & Rasmussen, C. (2012). A review of social skills deficits in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and prenatal alcohol exposure: Profiles, mechanisms, and interventions. Alcoholism: Clinical And Experimental Research, 36(4), 568–576. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01661.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, P. A., Baete, A., Russo, J., Elliott, A. J., Blankenship, J., Kalberg, W. O.,…Hoyme, H. E. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 134(5), 855–866.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • May, P. A., & Gossage, J. P. (2001). Estimating the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome—A summary. Alcohol Research and Health, 25(3), 159–167.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murawski, N. J., Moore, E. M., Thomas, J. D., & Riley, E. P. (2015). Advances in diagnosis and treatment of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: From animal models to human studies. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 37(1), 97–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. (2012). FASD. Retrieved from http://www.nofas.org/.

  • National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. (2016). Treatment and support. Retrieved from http://www.nofas.org/treatments-support/.

  • Novick, B. N., Connor, P., & Adler, R. (2012). Conduct-Disordered Adolescents With Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Intervention in Secure Treatment Settings. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 39(6), 770–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2012). A first drink before a first breath: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/newsletter/238981/sf_2.html.

  • Olson, H. C., Oti, R., Gelo, J., & Beck, S. (2009). “Family matters:” Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the family. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(3), 235–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padgett, L. S., Strickland, D., & Coles, C. D. (2006). Case study: Using a virtual reality computer game to teach fire safety skills to children diagnosed with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(1), 65–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Project CHOICES Research Group (2002). Alcohol-exposed pregnancy: Characteristics associated with risk. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 166–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reach to Teach (2007). Educating Elementary and Middle School Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Retrieved from http://fasdcenter.samhsa.gov/publications/reachToTeach.aspx.

  • Reid, N., Dawe, S., Shelton, D., Harnett, P., Warner, J., Armstrong, E., & ... O’Callaghan, F. (2015). Systematic review of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder interventions across the life span. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 39(12), 2283–2295. doi:10.1111/acer.12903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, S., & Ferguson, D. L. (2006). On, yet under, the radar: Students with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Exceptional Children, 72(3), 363–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O’Malley, K., & Young, J. K. (2004). Risk Factors for Adverse Life Outcomes in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Effects. Journal of Developmental And Behavioral Pediatrics, 25(4), 228–238. doi:10.1097/00004703-200408000-00002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2012). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Retrieved from http://fasdcenter.samhsa.gov/index.aspx.

  • Thomas, J. D., Abou, E. J., & Dominguez, H. D. (2009). Prenatal choline supplementation mitigates the adverse effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on development in rats. Neurotoxicolgy and Teratology, 31, 303–311.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Victor, A., Wozniak, J. R., & Chang, P. (2008). Environmental correlates of cognition and behavior in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Journal of Human Behavior in The Social Environment, 18(3), 288–300. doi:10.1080/10911350802427605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L., Mallett, R., Heslop, P., & Simons, K. (2003). Transition planning: how well does it work for young people with learning disabilities and their families? British Journal of Special Education, 30(3), 132–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wattendorf, D. J. & Muemke, M. (2005). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. American Academy of Family Physicians, 72(2), 279–285. Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/0715/p279.html.

  • World Health Organization (1992). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th Revision (ICD-10). Geneva: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2011). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Dashed hopes, damaged lives. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 89, 398–399. doi:10.2471/BLT.11.020611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wozniak, J., Eckerle, J., Fink, B., Kroupina, M., Miller, N., Boys, C., & ... Georgieff, M. (2013). Post-natal choline supplementation in children with FASD: Preliminary safety and efficacy results. Alcoholism: Clinical And Experimental Research, 37, 281A.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wozniak, J. R., Fuglestad, A. J., Eckerle, J. K., Fink, B. A., Hoecker, H. L., Boys, C. J., & ... Georgieff, M. K. (2015). Choline supplementation in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 102(5), 1113–1125. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.099168.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Counselor Education Program, Clemson University, 305 Tillman Hall, Clemson, SC, 29634-0707, USA

    Lauren F. Wilhoit & David A. Scott

  2. Michelin Career Center, 316 Hendrix Student Center, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA

    Brooke A. Simecka

Authors
  1. Lauren F. Wilhoit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David A. Scott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Brooke A. Simecka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David A. Scott.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent

All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 (5). Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.

Human and Animal Participants

No animal or human studies were carried out by the authors for this article.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wilhoit, L.F., Scott, D.A. & Simecka, B.A. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Characteristics, Complications, and Treatment. Community Ment Health J 53, 711–718 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-017-0104-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-017-0104-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation