Abstract
As the bilingual Spanish-speaking population in the United States (U.S.) steadily rises (U.S. Census Bureau in Language spoken at home, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?q=United%20States&g=0100000US, 2020), the need for systemic therapists who are competent in working with Spanish-speaking clients also increases. While it is unrealistic to require all mental health practitioners to be bilingual English and Spanish speakers, systemic therapists can improve their understanding of the impact that clients’ native language can have on the therapeutic process. In this paper, we synthesize concepts from narrative therapy and linguistic relativity to provide non-Spanish-speaking clinicians with a unique perspective of case conceptualizations and therapeutic interventions for clients who natively speak Spanish. A clinical vignette is presented to illustrate the practical application of linguistic relativity informed systemic therapy. Potential theoretical and clinical implications of this treatment suggestion are explored.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Our work is of a theoretical nature, and we do not collect or analyze any datasets in this manuscript. References that include empirical data can be found below.
References
Altarriba, J., & Basnight-Brown, D. (2022). The psychology of communication: The interplay between language and culture through time. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(8), 860–874. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221221114046
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (n.d.). AAMFT Diversity, Equity, and Inclusivity Statement. AAMFT. https://aamft.org/About_AAMFT/DI_Statement.aspx?WebsiteKey=8e8c9bd6-0b71-4cd1-a5ab-013b5f855b01
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. (2015) AAMFT Code of Ethics. https://aamft.org/Legal_Ethics/Code_of_Ethics.aspx
American Psychological Association. (2016). 2015 survey of psychology health service providers. https://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/15-health-service-providers/
Ansorge, U., Baier, D., & Choi, S. (2022). Linguistic skill and stimulus-driven attention: A case for linguistic relativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875744
Barrera, M., Castro, F. G., Strycker, L. A., & Toobert, D. J. (2012). Cultural adaptations of behavioral health interventions: A progress report. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027085
Bohnemeyer, J. (2020). Linguistic Relativity. In D. Gutzmann, L. Matthewson, C. Meier, H. Rullmann, & T. E. Zimmermann (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell companion to semantics (pp. 1–33). John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Boroditsky, L., Schmidt, L. A., & Phillips, W. (2003). Sex, syntax, and semantics. In D. Gentner & S. Goldin-Meadow (Eds.), Language in mind: Advances in the study of language and thought (pp. 61–79). The MIT Press.
Brown, R. (1976). Reference in memorial tribute to Eric Lenneberg. Cognition, 4(2), 125–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(76)90001-9
Brown, R. W., & Lenneberg, E. H. (1954). A study in language and cognition. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49(3), 454–462. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057814
Combs, G., & Freedman, J. (1998). Tellings and retellings. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 24(4), 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1998.tb01095.x
Costa, B. (2010). Mother tongue or non-native language? Learning from conversations with bilingual multilingual therapists about working with clients who do not share their native language. Ethnicity and Inequalities in Health and Social Care, 3(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.5042/eihsc.2010.0144
Costa, B., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2019). The talking cure—building the core skills and the confidence of counsellors and psychotherapists to work effectively with multilingual patients through training and supervision. Counseling & Psychotherapy Research, 19(3), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12187
Danesi, M. (2021). Linguistic relativity today: Language, mind, society, and the foundations of linguistic anthropology. Routledge.
Das, S. (2020). Multilingual matrix: Exploring the process of language switching by family therapists working with multilingual families. Journal of Family Therapy, 42(1), 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.12249
de Zulueta, F. (1990). Bilingualism and family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 12(3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1990.00392.x
Derrida, J. (1998). Monolingualism of the other, or, the prosthesis of origin. Stanford University Press.
Dewaele, J. M., & Nakano, S. (2013). Multilinguals’ perceptions of feeling different when switching languages. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 34(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2012.712133
Efran, J. S., Lukens, R. J., & Lukens, M. D. (1988). Constructivism: What's in it for you?. The Family Therapy Networker.
Ertl, M. M., Mann-Saumier, M., Martin, R. M., Graves, D. F., & Altarriba, J. (2019). The impossibility of client-therapist “match”: Implications and future directions for multicultural competency. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 41(4), 312–326. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.41.4.03
Forbes, J. N., Poulin-Dubois, D., Rivero, M. R., & Sera, M. D. (2008). Grammatical gender affects bilinguals’ conceptual gender: Implications for linguistic relativity and decision making. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 1(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874913500801010068
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977. Pantheon Books.
Freedman, J., & Combs, G. (1996). Narrative therapy: The social construction of preferred realities. Norton.
Gallistel, C. R. (2002). Language and spatial frames of reference in mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(8), 321–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01962-9
Goddard, C. (2021). Cognitive linguistics. In J. Standlaw (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of linguistic anthropology (pp. 1–5). Wiley Blackwell.
Gumperz, J. J., & Levinson, S. C. (1991). Rethinking linguistic relativity. Current Anthropology, 32(5), 613–623. https://doi.org/10.1086/204009
Held, B. S. (1990). What’s in a name? Some confusions and concerns about constructivism. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 16(2), 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1990.tb00837.x
Hoffman, L. (1988). A constructivist position for family therapy. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 110–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/03033910.1988.10557709
Kay, P., & Kempton, W. (1984). What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? American Anthropologist, 86(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050
Koerner, E. K. (1992). The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: A preliminary history and a bibliographical essay. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 2(2), 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1992.2.2.173
Kokaliari, E., Catanzarite, G., & Berzoff, J. (2013). It is called mother tongue for a reason: A qualitative study of therapists’ perspectives on bilingual psychotherapy – treatment implications. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 83(1), 97–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377317.2013.747396
Kurinski, E., & Sera, M. D. (2011). Does learning Spanish grammatical gender change English-speaking adults' categorization of inanimate objects? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(2), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728910000179
Larner, G. (2015). Ethical family therapy: Speaking the language of the other. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 36(4), 434–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1131
Levinson, S. C. (1996). Frames of reference and Molyneux’s question: Crosslinguistic evidence. In P. Bloom, M. A. Peterson, L. Nadel, & M. F. Garrett (Eds.), Language and space (pp. 109–169). The MIT Press.
Levinson, S. C., Kita, S., Haun, D. B., & Rasch, B. H. (2002). Returning the tables: Language affects spatial reasoning. Cognition, 84(2), 155–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00045-8
Lopez, M. H., Krogstad, J. M, & Passel, J. (2021). Who is Hispanic?. Pew Research Center.
Lowry, M., & Bryant, J. (2019). Blue is in the eye of the beholder: A cross-linguistic study on color perception and memory. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 48, 163–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-018-9597-0
Majid, A., Bowerman, M., Kita, S., Haun, D. B., & Levinson, S. C. (2004). Can language restructure cognition? The case for space. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(3), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.01.003
Marcos, L. R., & Urcuyo, L. (1979). Dynamic psychotherapy with the bilingual patient. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 33(3), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1979.33.3.331
Medina-Centeno, R. (2022). Third-order critical family therapy: Rethinking psychopathology and psychotherapy. Interacciones, 8(e290), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.24016/2022.v8.290
Minuchin, S. (1998). Where is the family in narrative therapy? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 24(4), 397–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1998.tb01094.x
Monk, G. E., Winslade, J. E., Crocket, K. E., & Epston, D. E. (1997). Narrative therapy in practice: The archaeology of hope. Jossey-Bass.
Pavlenko, A. (2012). Affective processing in bilingual speakers: Disembodied cognition? International Journal of Psychology, 47(6), 405–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.743665
Pavlidou, T. S., & Alvanoudi, A. (2019). Conceptualizing the world as ‘female’ or ‘male’: Further remarks on grammatical gender and speakers’ cognition. Selected Papers on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, 23, 317–332. https://doi.org/10.26262/istal.v23i0.7351
Pérez-Rojas, A. E., Brown, R., Cervantes, A., Valente, T., & Pereira, S. R. (2019). “Alguien abrió la puerta:” The phenomenology of bilingual latinx clients’ use of Spanish and English in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 56(2), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000224
Ponterotto, J. G. (2010). Handbook of multicultural counseling. Sage.
Rivera, P. M., Heiden-Rootes, K., Nguyen, H., & Iheanacho, E. (2021). Integrating a process-orientation into multicultural training for marriage and family therapists: A systematic review and critique. The American Journal of Family Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2021.2019142
Roche, G. (2019). Articulating language oppression: Colonialism, coloniality and the erasure of Tibet’s minority languages. Patterns of Prejudice, 53(5), 487–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2019.1662074
Rolland, L., Costa, B., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2021). Negotiating the language(s) for psychotherapy talk: A mixed methods study from the perspective of multilingual clients. Counseling & Psychotherapy Research, 21(1), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12369
Ruiz-Adams, R. (2019). Bilingual families: Using therapist-facilitated interpretation in psychotherapy. The Family Journal, 27(2), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480719832506
Samuel, S., Cole, G., & Eacott, M. J. (2019). Grammatical gender and linguistic relativity: A systematic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26, 1767–1786. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01652-3
Santiago-Rivera, A. L., & Altarriba, J. (2002). The role of language in therapy with the Spanish-English bilingual client. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 33(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.33.1.30
Sapir, E. (1929). The status of linguistics as a science. Language, 5, 207–214. https://doi.org/10.2307/409588
Sera, M. D., Berge, C. A. H., & del Castillo Pintado, J. (1994). Grammatical and conceptual forces in the attribution of gender by English and Spanish speakers. Cognitive Development, 9(3), 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(94)90007-8
Sera, M. D., Elieff, C., Forbes, J., Burch, M. C., Rodríguez, W., & Dubois, D. P. (2002). When language affects cognition and when it does not: An analysis of grammatical gender and classification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131(3), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.131.3.377
Softas-Nall, L., Cardona, B., & Barritt, J. (2015). Challenges and diversity issues working with multilingual and bilingual couples and families. The Family Journal, 23(1), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480714548402
Swazo, R., & Pelc, N. (2022). Narrative therapy with Spanish speakers: Creative bilingual strategies for individual, family, and group sessions. Taylor & Francis.
Szoke, D., Cummings, C., & Benuto, L. T. (2020). Exposure in an increasingly bilingual world: Native language exposure therapy with a non-language matched therapist. Clinical Case Studies, 19(1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650119886349
Talamantes, M. (2021). A critical classroom study of language oppression: Manuel and Malena’s testimonios, “Sentía como que yo no valía nada . . . se reían de mí.” Journal of Latinos and Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2021.1880412
Tang, J., Yang, J., Ye, W., & Khan, S. A. (2021). Now is the time: The effects of linguistic time reference and national time orientation on innovative new ventures. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(5), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2021.106142
Wei, L. (Ed.). (2000). The bilingualism reader (Vol. 11). Routledge.
Tien, N. C., Softas-Nall, L., & Barritt, J. (2017). Intercultural/multilingual couples. The Family Journal, 25(2), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717697680
Tomm, K. & Lannamann, J. (1988). Questions as interventions. The Family Therapy Networker.
Tomm, K. (1988). Interventive interviewing: Part III. Intending to ask lineal, circular, reflexive and strategic questions? Family Process, 27, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1988.00001.x
Tomm, K. (1998). A question of perspective. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 24(4), 409–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1998.tb01096.x
U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). Language spoken at home. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?q=United%20States&g=0100000US
Verkerk, L., Backus, A., Faro, L., Dewaele, J.-M., & Das, E. (2021). Language choice in psychotherapy of multilingual clients: Perspectives from multilingual therapists. Language and Psychoanalysis, 10(2), 4–22. https://doi.org/10.7565/landp.v10i2.5542
Vigliocco, G., Vinson, D. P., Paganelli, F., & Dworzynski, K. (2005). Grammatical gender effects on cognition: Implications for language learning and language use. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(4), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.501
Watzlawick, P., Bavelas, J. B., & Jackson, D. D. (2014). Pragmatics of human communication: A study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. W. W. Norton & Company.
White, M. K. (2007). Maps of narrative practice. W. W. Norton & Company.
White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. Norton.
Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. The MIT Press.
Wolff, P., & Holmes, K. J. (2011). Linguistic relativity. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 2(3), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.104
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Smith, M.L., Nordfelt, R., Daley, J. et al. Not Just Semantics: A Synthesis of Narrative Therapy and Linguistic Relativity as Applied to Spanish-Speaking Bilingual Clients. Contemp Fam Ther 46, 100–111 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-023-09670-z
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-023-09670-z