Abstract
The present study examines exposure to adversity as a predictor of psychological distress and risk behavior among 266 elementary students in 14 low income neighborhood schools in Chicago. Two indices of adversity exposure were created, reflecting neighborhood, school, and peer group risk (NSP) and the lack of protective resources within the family and neighborhood (LPR). Regression analyses investigated these indices as independent and potentially interacting predictors of self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety, frequency of substance use, and involvement in violence-related behavior. The LPR index was found to be a linear predictor of greater reported anxiety and exhibited a significant curvilinear association with reports of depression, substance use, and violence-related behavior. Similarly, the NSP index was a linear predictor of greater reported levels of substance use and violence-related behavior. Significant interaction between the two indices was found. Implications for research and school clinicians (social workers and psychologists) are offered.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aber, J. L., Bennett, N. G., Conley, D. C., & Li, J. (1997). The effects of poverty on child health and development. Annual Reviews in Public Health, 18, 463–483. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.463.
Achenbach, T. M. (1978). The child behavior profile: I. Boys aged 6–11. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 478–488. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.47.2.223.
Adler, N. E., & Newman, K. (2002). Socioeconomic disparities in health: Pathways and policies. Health Affairs, 21, 60–76. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.60.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Anderson, E. R., & Hope, D. A. (2008). A review of the tripartite model for understanding the link between anxiety and depression in youth. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 275–287. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.05.004.
Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., Van Dulmen, M. M., & Sroufe, L. A. (2005). When more is not better: The role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 235–245. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00351.
Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustments in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 391–400. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2304_5.
Atzaba-Poria, N., Pike, A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2004). Do risk factors for problem behaviour act in a cumulative manner? An examination of ethnic minority and majority children through an ecological perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 707–718. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00265.x.
Barnes, G. M., Welte, J. W., Hoffman, J. H., & Dintcheff, B. A. (1999). Gambling and alcohol use among youth: Influences of demographic, socialization, and individual factors. Addictive Behaviors, 24, 749–767. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(99)00048-9.
Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1997). Caring school communities. Educational Psychologist, 32, 137–151. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3203_1.
Bell, J., & Standish, M. (2005). Communities and health policy: A pathway for change. Health Affairs, 24, 339–342. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.2.339.
Blum, R. W., Beuhring, T., Shew, M. L., Bearinger, L. H., Sieving, R. E., & Resnick, M. D. (2000). The effects of race/ethnicity, income, and family structure on adolescent risk behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1879–1884. doi:10.2105/AJPH.90.12.1879.
Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 305–314. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.305.
Bonny, A. E., Britto, M. T., Klostermann, B. K., Hornung, R. W., & Slap, G. B. (2000). School disconnectedness: Identifying adolescents at risk. Pediatrics, 106, 1017–1021. doi:10.1542/peds.106.5.1017.
Bossarte, R. M., Swahn, M. H., & Breiding, M. (2009). Racial, ethnic, and sex differences in the associations between violence and self-reported health among US high school students. Journal of School Health, 79, 74–81. doi:10.1542/peds.101.5.895.
Bowen, N. K., & Bowen, G. L. (1999). Effects of crime and violence in neighborhoods and schools on the school behavior and performance of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 319–342. doi:10.1177/0743558499143003.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Oxford, England: Elsevier. Retrived from http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/35bronfebrenner94.pdf.
Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S. J., & Cohen, P. (1996). Young adult drug use and delinquency: Childhood antecedents and adolescent mediators. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1584–1592. doi:10.1097/00004583-199612000-00009.
Cabrera, O. A., Hoge, C. W., Bliese, P. D., Castro, C. A., & Messer, S. C. (2007). Childhood adversity and combat as predictors of depression and post-traumatic stress in deployed troops. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 77–82. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.03.019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Methodology of the youth risk behavior surveillance system. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5312a1.htm.
City of Chicago. (2007). Community area map [Demographic map]. Retrived from http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/doit/supp_info/citywide_maps.html.
Cunha, F. & Heckman, J. J. (2010). Investing in our young people (Discussion Paper Series, No. 5050). Retrieved from http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/44199/1/631911804.pdf.
Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner, K. A. (2006). Neighborhood characteristics and depression: An examination of stress processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 15, 188–192. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00433.x.
Dahlberg, L. L. (1998). Youth violence in the United States. Major trends, risk factors, and prevention approaches. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 259–272. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00009-9.
Dahlberg, L. L., & Potter, L. B. (2001). Youth violence: Developmental pathways and prevention challenges. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20, 3–14. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00268-3.
Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: Group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 469–493. doi:10.1017/S0954579498001709.
DeCoster, J., Iselin, A. M. R., & Gallucci, M. (2009). A conceptual and empirical examination of justifications for dichotomization. Psychological Methods, 14, 349–366. doi:10.1037/a0016956.
Dubow, E. F., Edwards, S., & Ippolito, M. F. (1997). Life stressors, neighborhood disadvantage, and resources: A focus on inner-city children’s adjustment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 130–144. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2602_2.
Dumas, J. E., Nissley, J., Nordstrom, A., Smith, E. P., Prinz, R. J., & Levine, D. W. (2005). Home chaos: Sociodemographic, parenting, interactional, and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34, 93–104. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_9.
Elliott, D. S., Wilson, W. J., Huizinga, D., Sampson, R. J., Elliott, A., & Rankin, B. (1996). The effects of neighborhood disadvantage on adolescent development. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 389–426. doi:10.1177/0022427896033004002.
Esbensen, F., Peterson, D., Taylor, T., & Freng, A. (2009). Similarities and differences in risk factors for violent offending and gang membership. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 42, 310–335. doi:10.1375/acri.42.3.310.
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-X.59.2.77.
Evans, G. W. (2006). Child development and the physical environment. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 423–451. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190057.
Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1238–1248. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00469.
Evans, G. W., & Kantrowitz, E. (2002). Socioeconomic status and health: The potential role of environmental risk exposure. Annual Reviews in Public Health, 23, 303–331. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.112001.112349.
Evans, G. W., Li, D., & Whipple, S. S. (2013). Cumulative risk and child development. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1342. doi:10.1037/a0031808.
Evans, G. W., & Marcynyszyn, L. A. (2004). Environmental justice, cumulative environmental risk, and health among low-and middle-income children in upstate New York. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1942–1944. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.11.1942.
Farahmand, F. K., Grant, K. E., Polo, A. J., & Duffy, S. N. (2011). School-based mental health and behavioral programs for low-income, urban youth: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 18, 372–390. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2011.01265.x.
Felner, R. D., Brand, S., DuBois, D. L., Adan, A. M., Mulhall, P. F., & Evans, E. G. (1995). Socioeconomic disadvantage, proximal environmental experiences, and socioemotional and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of a mediated effects model. Child Development, 774–792. doi:10.2307/1131950.
Forehand, R., Brody, G. H., Armistead, L., Dorsey, S., Morse, E., & Stock, M. (2000). The role of community risks and resources in the psychosocial adjustment of at-risk children: An examination across two community contexts and two informants. Behavior Therapy, 31, 395–414. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(00)80022-2.
Gabalda, M. K., Thompson, M. P., & Kaslow, N. J. (2010). Risk and protective factors for psychological adjustment among low-income African-American children. Journal of Family Issues, 31, 423–444. doi:10.1177/0192513X09348488.
Gee, G. C., & Payne-Sturges, D. C. (2004). Environmental health disparities: A framework integrating psychosocial and environmental concepts. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112, 1645–1653. doi:10.1289/ehp.7074.
Gerard, J. M., & Buehler, C. (2004a). Cumulative environmental risk and youth problem behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 702–720. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00048.x.
Gerard, J. M., & Buehler, C. (2004b). Cumulative environmental risk and youth maladjustment: The role of youth attributes. Child Development, 75, 1832–1849. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00820.x.
Goodman, E. (1999). The role of socioeconomic status gradients in explaining differences in U.S. adolescent health. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1522–1528. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.10.1522.
Grant, K. E., Lyons, A. L., Finkelstein, J. A. S., Conway, K. M., Reynolds, L. K., O’Koon, J. H., & Hicks, K. J. (2004). Gender differences in rates of depressive symptoms among low-income, urban, African-American youth: A test of two mediational hypotheses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 523–533. doi:10.1023/B:JOYO.0000048066.90949.be.
Grant, K. E., Teralandur, S., Farrell, S., Barnett, A., Johnson, S., Tailor, M., … Gaylord-Harden, N. K. (2015). Development and validation of a measure of protective settings for youth: Places I spend time. Manuscript in preparation.
Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Scheier, L. M., Diaz, T., & Miller, N. L. (2000). Parenting practices as predictors of substance use, delinquency, and aggression among urban minority youth: Moderating effects of family structure and gender. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 174–184. doi:10.1037//0893-164X.14.2.174.
Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Scheier, L. M., Doyle, M. M., & Williams, C. (2003). Common predictors of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, aggression, and delinquency among inner-city minority youth. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1141–1148. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(02)00225-3.
Harper, C. C., & McLanahan, S. S. (2004). Father absence and youth incarceration. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14, 369–397. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.00079.x.
Hawkins, J. D., Herrenkohl, T. I., Farrington, D. P., Brewer, D., Catalano, R. F., Harachi, T. W., & Cothern, L. (2000). Predictors of youth violence. Retrieved from U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention website: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/179065.pdf.
Herrenkohl, T. I., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 176–186. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(99),00065-8.
Hill, T. D., & Angel, R. J. (2005). Neighborhood disorder, psychological distress, and heavy drinking. Social Science and Medicine, 61, 965–975. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.027.
Hipwell, A., Keenan, K., Kasza, K., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Bean, T. (2008). Reciprocal influences between girls’ conduct problems and depression, and parental punishment and warmth: A six year prospective analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 663–677. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9206-4.
Ji, P., DuBois, D. L., Flay, B. R., & Brechling, V. (2008). “Congratulations, you have been randomized into the control group!(?)”: Issues to consider when recruiting schools for matched-pair randomized control trials of prevention programs. Journal of School Health, 78, 131–139. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00275.x.
Ji, P., Flay, B. R., DuBois, D. L., Brechling, V., Day, J., & Cantillon, D. (2006). Consent form return rates for third-grade urban elementary students. American Journal of Health Behavior, 30, 467–474. doi:10.5993/AJHB.30.5.3.
Jones, D. J., Forehand, R., Brody, G., & Armistead, L. (2002). Psychosocial adjustment of African-American children in single-mother families: A test of three risk models. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64, 105–115. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00105.x.
Kaminski, J. W., David-Ferdon, C., Battistich, V. A., & The SCDRC. (2009). Development and validation of outcome measures for the school-based social and character development program. Journal of Research in Character Education, 7, 51–74. Retrieved from http://character.org/more-resources/journal-ce/.
Karevold, E., Røysamb, E., Ystrom, E., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2009). Predictors and pathways from infancy to symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1051–1060. doi:10.1037/a0016123.
Kerr, M. A., Black, M. M., & Krishnakumar, A. (2000). Failure-to-thrive, maltreatment and the behavior and development of 6-year-old children from low-income, urban families: A cumulative risk model. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 587–598. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00126-5.
Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G., & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US national comorbidity survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1101–1119. doi:10.1017/S0033291797005588.
Kiser, L. J. (2007). Protecting children from the dangers of urban poverty. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 211–225. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.004.
Li, S. T., Nussbaum, K. M., & Richards, M. H. (2007). Risk and protective factors for urban African-American youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 21–35. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9088.
Liaw, F. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1994). Cumulative familial risks and low-birthweight children’s cognitive and behavioral development. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 360. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2304_2.
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00164.
Magnusson, D. (2003). The person approach: Concepts, measurement models, and research strategy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 101, 3–23. doi:10.1002/cd.79.
Matheny, A. P., Wachs, T. D., Ludwig, J. L., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bringing order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 429–444. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(95)90028-4.
McDaniel, N. S. (2008). Neighborhood stressors, perceived neighborhood quality, and child mental health in New York City. Health & Place, 15, 148–155. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.03.007.
McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02781.x.
Monk, C., Spicer, J., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Linking prenatal maternal adversity to developmental outcomes in infants: The role of epigenetic pathways. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 1361–1376. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000764.
Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2006). The effects of cumulative risks and promotive factors on urban adolescent alcohol and other drug use: A longitudinal study of resiliency. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 237–249. doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9076-x.
Parra, G. R., DuBois, D. L., & Sher, K. J. (2006). Investigation of profiles of risk factors for adolescent psychopathology: A person-centered approach. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35, 386–402. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3503_4.
Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Spirito, A. (2001). Adolescents’ and their friends’ health-risk behavior: Factors that alter or add to peer influence. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 26, 287–298. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/26.5.287.
Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological methodology, 25, 111–164. Retrieved from https://www.stat.washington.edu/raftery/Research/PDF/socmeth1995.pdf.
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. (1992). Behavior assessment system for children (BASC). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Rudolph, K. D., & Flynn, M. (2007). Childhood adversity and youth depression: Influence of gender and pubertal status. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 497–521. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070241.
Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children’s responses to stress and disadvantage. In M. W. Kent, & J. E., Rolf (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology. III. Social competence in children (pp. 49–74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Sameroff, A. J., Bartko, W. T., Baldwin, A., Baldwin, C., & Seifer, R. (1998). Family and social influences on the development of child competence. In M. Lewis & C. Feiring (Eds.), Families, risk, and competence (pp. 161–185). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sameroff, A. J., & Seifer, R. (1995). Accumulation of environmental risk and child mental health. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. Lester, & B. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of poverty: Research, health, and policy issues (Vol. 23, pp. 233–258). New York, NY: Garland Publishing.
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: The influence of social and family risk factors. Child Development, 64, 80–97. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02896.x.
Sampson, R. J. (2003). The neighborhood context of well-being. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 46, S53–S64. doi:10.1353/pbm.2003.0059.
Sampson, R. J. & Laub, J. H. (1994). Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: A new look at structure and process in a classic study. Child Development, 65, 523–540. Retrieved from http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/sampson/files/1994_cd_laub.pdf.
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Earls, F. (1999). Beyond social capital: Spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children. American Sociological Review, 64, 633–660. doi:10.2307/2657367.
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002). Assessing neighborhood effects: Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Sociological Review, 28, 443–478. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114.
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924. Retrieved from http://faculty.washington.edu/matsueda/courses/587/readings/Sampson%201997%20Science.pdf.
Sandler, I. (2001). Quality and ecology of adversity as common mechanisms of risk and resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 19–61. doi:10.1023/A:1005237110505.
Seidman, E., Allen, L., Aber, J. L., Mitchell, C., Feinman, J., Yoshikawa, H., … Roper, G. C. (1995). Development and validation of adolescent-perceived microsystem scales: Social support, daily hassles, and involvement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 355–388. doi:10.1007/BF02506949.
Shelton, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Wootton, J. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 25, 317–329. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2503_8.
Small, M. L., & Newman, K. (2001). Urban poverty after the truly disadvantaged: The rediscovery of the family, the neighborhood, and culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 23–45. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.23.
Sobeck, J., Abbey, A., Agius, E., Clinton, M., & Harrison, K. (2000). Predicting early adolescent substance use: Do risk factors differ depending on age of onset? Journal of Substance Abuse, 11, 89–102. doi:10.1016/s0899-3289(99)00022-x.
Van Der Laan, A. M., Veenstra, R., Bogaerts, S., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2010). Serious, minor, and non-delinquents in early adolescence: The impact of cumulative risk and promotive factors—The TRAILS study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 339–351. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9368-3.
Vyas, S., & Kumaranayake, L. (2006). Constructing socio-economic status indices: How to use principal components analysis. Health Policy and Planning, 21, 459–468. doi:10.1093/heapol/czl029.
Wilbur, M. B., Marani, J. E., Appugliese, D., Woods, R., Siegel, J. A., Cabral, H. J., & Frank, D. A. (2007). Socioemotional effects of fathers’ incarceration on low-income, urban, school-aged children. Pediatrics, 120, e678–e685. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2166.
Wilson, W. J. & Aponte, R. (1985). Urban poverty. Annual Review of Sociology, 231–258. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.11.080185.001311.
Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., Hoyt-Meyers, L., Magnus, K. B., & Fagen, D. B. (1999). Caregiving and developmental factors differentiating young at-risk urban children showing resilient versus stress-affected outcomes: A replication and extension. Child Development, 70, 645–659. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00047.
Xue, Y., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Earls, F. J. (2005). Neighborhood residence and mental health problems of 5-to 11-year-olds. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 554–563. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.5.554.
Youngblade, L. M., Curry, L. A., Novak, M., Vogel, B., & Shenkman, E. A. (2006). The impact of community risks and resources on adolescent risky behavior and health care expenditures. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 486–494. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.07.016.
Youngblade, L. M., Theokas, C., Schulenberg, J., Curry, L., Huang, I. C., & Novak, M. (2007). Risk and promotive factors in families, schools, and communities: A contextual model of positive youth development in adolescence. Pediatrics, 119, S47–S53. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2089H.
Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67, 272–284. doi:10.1037/a0028015.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Day, J., Ji, P., DuBois, D.L. et al. Cumulative Social-Environmental Adversity Exposure as Predictor of Psychological Distress and Risk Behavior in Urban Youth. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 33, 219–235 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0421-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0421-5