Some of the [FCC regulations] actually ends up helping comedy. I think some restraints force you to be creative. -Elizabeth Meriwether, Creator of New Girl (Variety, 2021)
Abstract
The pervasiveness of unethical actions paired with the rising demand for creativity in organizations has contributed to an increased interest in how ethicality and creativity relate. However, there are mixed findings on whether these two fundamental pillars of the workplace relate positively, negatively, or not at all. To provide an empirical consensus to this debate, we study the directional effects of ethicality on creativity by employing meta-analytic techniques. Specifically, a series of meta-regressions, moderated meta-regressions, and individual subgroup analyses of moderators investigated the nuances of the ethicality-creativity relationship. Using a random-effects model, a quantitative review of 278 effects across 23 articles revealed that ethicality positively related to creativity. We further probed how each domain of ethicality (i.e., ethical decision-making, ethical leadership, ethical culture, ethical thought) related to creativity; the effect of ethicality on creativity remained positive, but was no longer significant. Additionally, to expand our understanding of this relationship, we offer theoretical and empirical accounts of five factors that moderate the positive association between ethicality and creativity: ethicality and creativity domains and measurement, sample culture, study characteristics, and sample characteristics. Theoretical and practical insights regarding these relationships are discussed.
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Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Dr. Elizabeth Campbell, University of Minnesota, for her continuous feedback, advice, and friendly reviews throughout the review process. The authors also thank the Journal Editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback on this paper.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Ethicality and creativity meta-regression results (outliers removed)
k | N | r | \({SE}_{r}\) | \(\rho\) | \({SE}_{\rho }\) | Lower CI95 | Upper CI95 | Lower CV89 | Upper CV89 | I2 | \({\tau }^{2}\) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meta-regression | ||||||||||||
Model 1: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | 0.04* | 0.01 | 0.05* | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.08 | − 0.02 | 0.11 | 68.77% | 0.01 |
Model 2: Ethical Leadership – Creativity | 32 | 7,317 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.09 | − 0.04 | 0.28 | − 0.05 | 0.31 | 90.12% | 0.04 |
Model 3: Ethical Decision-Making – Creativity | 112 | 34,679 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | − 0.14 | 0.20 | − 0.20 | 0.28 | 61.28% | 0.01 |
Model 4: Ethical Culture – Creativity | 124 | 36,268 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | − 0.14 | 0.22 | − 0.16 | 0.25 | 44.90% | < 0.01 |
Model 5: Ethical Thought – Creativity | 7 | 2,250 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.07 | − 0.30 | 0.49 | − 0.34 | 0.57 | 82.32% | 0.02 |
Moderated meta-regression† | ||||||||||||
Model 6: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | 0.11** | 0.03 | 0.12** | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 76.90% | 0.01 |
Ethicality Domains | ||||||||||||
Ethical Decision-Making | 112 | 34,679 | − 0.27** | 0.07 | − 0.31** | 0.07 | − 0.37 | − 0.15 | − 0.41 | − 0.20 | – | – |
Ethical Culture | 124 | 36,268 | − 0.04 | 0.15 | − 0.04 | 0.15 | − 0.25 | 0.18 | − 0.25 | 0.18 | – | – |
Ethical Thought | 7 | 2,250 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.09 | − 0.13 | 0.18 | − 0.10 | 0.20 | – | – |
Ethicality Measures | ||||||||||||
Forsyth’s (1980) EPQ | 4 | 1,680 | − 0.08 | 0.11 | − 0.09 | 0.10 | − 0.26 | 0.10 | − 0.27 | 0.09 | – | – |
Mumford et al.’s (2006) Ethical Decision-Making | 88 | 22,704 | 0.19* | 0.08 | 0.24* | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.32 | 0.12 | 0.36 | – | – |
Goldberg et al.’s (2006) IPIP Ethical Decision-Making Items | 13 | 10,367 | 0.27** | 0.09 | 0.32** | 0.8 | 0.14 | 0.40 | 0.20 | 0.44 | – | – |
Valentine and Fleischman’s (2008) Ethical Standards | 3 | 2,148 | 0.05 | 0.14 | 0.05 | 0.14 | − 0.19 | 0.28 | − 0.19 | 0.28 | – | – |
Kaptein’s (2008) CEV | 120 | 33,870 | − 0.03 | 0.14 | − 0.04 | 0.14 | − 0.25 | 0.19 | − 0.26 | 0.17 | – | – |
Yilmaz’s (2006) Ethical Leadership | 4 | 2,108 | − 0.12* | 0.03 | − 0.13* | 0.01 | − 0.21 | − 0.02 | − 0.23 | − 0.04 | – | – |
Model 7: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | 0.04** | 0.01 | 0.04** | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 72.52% | 0.01 |
Creativity Domains | ||||||||||||
Creative Behavior | 35 | 7,795 | − 0.20** | 0.05 | − 0.24** | 0.04 | − 0.27 | − 0.13 | − 0.30 | − 0.18 | – | – |
Creative Thinking | 92 | 24,384 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.06 | − 0.06 | 0.10 | − 0.05 | 0.12 | – | – |
Creative Personality | 28 | 14,465 | 0.31* | 0.15 | 0.38* | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.51 | 0.19 | 0.54 | – | – |
Creativity Measures | ||||||||||||
Team Creativity (Shin & Zhou, 2007) | 9 | 1,037 | − 0.26* | 0.12 | − 0.33* | 0.10 | − 0.48 | − 0.02 | − 0.50 | − 0.13 | – | – |
Employee Creativity (Farmer, et al., 2003) | 6 | 1,778 | 0.13* | 0.05 | 0.15* | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.24 | – | – |
Mumford et al.’s (1991) Creative Thinking Process | 88 | 22,704 | 0.39** | 0.06 | 0.44** | 0.06 | 0.30 | 0.50 | 0.37 | 0.52 | – | – |
Goldberg et al.’s (2006) IPIP Creativity Items | 14 | 10,505 | − 0.02 | 0.05 | − 0.03* | 0.04 | − 0.11 | 0.06 | − 0.11 | − 0.07 | – | – |
Employee Creativity (Zhou & George, 2001) | 12 | 3,872 | − 0.22 | 0.15 | − 0.27 | 0.15 | − 0.43 | 0.01 | − 0.46 | 0.62 | – | – |
Kumar et al.’s (1997) Global Creativity | 4 | 1,680 | 0.15** | 0.07 | 0.19** | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.25 | 0.09 | 0.29 | – | – |
Çavuş’s (2006) Organizational Creativity | 4 | 2,108 | 0.24** | 0.06 | 0.32** | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.34 | 0.22 | 0.41 | – | – |
Model 8: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | 0.05** | 0.02 | 0.06** | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 80.08% | 0.01 |
Sample Type | ||||||||||||
Employee | 148 | 40,825 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.15 | − 0.01 | 0.15 | – | – |
Individual | 19 | 5,504 | − 0.09** | 0.04 | − 0.12** | 0.03 | − 0.15 | − 0.04 | − 0.17 | − 0.06 | – | – |
Sample Location | ||||||||||||
Asia | 25 | 6,386 | − 0.01 | 0.05 | − 0.02 | 0.05 | − 0.08 | 0.07 | − 0.09 | 0.06 | – | – |
Europe | 121 | 34,042 | − 0.08* | 0.04 | − 0.10* | 0.04 | − 0.15 | − 0.01 | − 0.17 | − 0.03 | – | – |
Middle East | 5 | 2,234 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.04 | − 0.04 | 0.15 | − 0.03 | 0.17 | – | – |
Model 9: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | − 0.38** | 0.08 | − 0.49** | 0.08 | − 0.50 | − 0.26 | − 0.59 | − 0.39 | 76.02% | 0.01 |
Level of Analysis | ||||||||||||
Dyad | 25 | 12,988 | 0.12** | 0.02 | 0.13** | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.17 | – | – |
Team | 12 | 1,237 | 0.20** | 0.05 | 0.28** | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.29 | 0.19 | 0.37 | – | – |
Organizational | 120 | 33,826 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.03 | − 0.04 | 0.05 | − 0.05 | 0.05 | – | – |
Funding Status: Funded | 119 | 36,599 | − 0.01 | 0.03 | − 0.01 | 0.03 | − 0.06 | 0.03 | − 0.05 | 0.03 | – | – |
Publication Status: Published | 269 | 79,884 | 0.41** | 0.08 | 0.52** | 0.07 | 0.29 | 0.52 | 0.42 | 0.61 | – | – |
Model 10: Ethicality – Creativity | 275 | 80,514 | 0.63 | 0.36 | 0.66 | 0.39 | − 0.08 | 0.99 | − 0.07 | 0.98 | 64.74% | 0.01 |
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions | ||||||||||||
Power Distance | 275 | 80,514 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | – | – |
Uncertainty Avoidance | 275 | 80,514 | 0.00* | 0.00 | 0.00* | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | – | – |
Indulgence | 275 | 80,514 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | – | – |
Corruption Perceptions | 275 | 80,514 | 0.01* | 0.00 | 0.01* | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | – | – |
UN Human Development Index | 275 | 80,514 | − 0.95** | 0.50 | − 0.96** | 0.52 | − 0.99 | − 0.46 | − 1.00 | − 0.46 | – | – |
Appendix B
Ethicality and creativity categorical moderator subgroup analysis (outliers removed).
Categorical moderator | k | N | r | \(\rho\) | Lower CI95 | Upper CI95 | Lower CI84 | Upper CI84 | Lower CV89 | Upper CV89 | I2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethicality Domain | |||||||||||
Ethical Leadership | 32 | 7,317 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.23 | 0.07 | 0.20 | 0.0 | 0.20 | 89.7% |
Ethical Decision-Making | 112 | 34,679 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 59.6% |
Ethical Culture | 124 | 36,268 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 43.5% |
Ethical Thought | 7 | 2,250 | 0.09 | 0.11 | − 0.01 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 0.21 | 0.01 | 0.20 | 71.3% |
Creativity Domain | |||||||||||
Innovation | 120 | 33,870 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | − 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 41.2% |
Creative Behavior | 35 | 7,795 | − 0.01 | 0.00 | − 0.07 | 0.12 | − 0.02 | 0.07 | − 0.06 | 0.12 | 90.4% |
Creative Thinking | 92 | 24,384 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 32.4% |
Creative Personality | 28 | 14,465 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.10 | 0.22 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.22 | 0.21 | 71.3% |
Ethicality Measure | |||||||||||
Brown et al.’s (2005) Ethical Leadership | 24 | 4,349 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.21 | 0.05 | 0.19 | 87.8% |
Forsyth’s (1980) EPQ | 4 | 1,680 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.0% |
Mumford et al.’s (2006) Ethical Decision-Making | 88 | 22,704 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 34.1% |
Goldberg et al.’s (2006) IPIP Ethical Decision-Making Items | 13 | 10,367 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 0.08 | 0.16 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 69.3% |
Valentine and Fleischman’s (2008) Ethical Standards | 3 | 2,148 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 0.08 | 0.16 | 0.10 | 0.18 | 0.0% |
Kaptein’s (2008) CEV | 120 | 33,870 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 41.2% |
Yilmaz’s (2006) Ethical Leadership | 4 | 2,108 | − 0.01 | − 0.01 | − 0.19 | 0.20 | − 0.19 | 0.17 | − 0.20 | 0.18 | 96.4% |
Creativity Measure | |||||||||||
Mednick’s (1968) RAT | 11 | 1,608 | − 0.16 | − 0.20 | − 0.22 | − 0.12 | − 0.20 | − 0.12 | − 0.25 | − 0.15 | 0.0% |
Employee Creativity (Zhou & George, 2001) | 12 | 3,872 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.16 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 0.04 | 0.17 | 65.5% |
Team Creativity (Shin & Zhou, 2007) | 9 | 1,037 | − 0.05 | − 0.07 | − 0.22 | 0.11 | − 0.17 | 0.07 | − 0.24 | 0.10 | 88.4% |
Employee Creativity (Farmer, et al., 2003) | 6 | 1,778 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.29 | 0.31 | 0.28 | 0.30 | 85.5% |
Mumford’ et al.s (1991) Creative Thinking Process | 88 | 22,704 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 34.1% |
Goldberg et al.’s (2006) IPIP Creativity Items | 14 | 10,505 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.08 | 0.20 | 0.09 | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.23 | 77.0% |
Wang and Ahmed’s (2004) Organizational Innovativeness | 120 | 33,870 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 41.2% |
Employee Creativity (Oldham & Cummings, 1996) | 2 | 88 | 0.34 | 0.37 | 0.28 | 0.51 | 0.31 | 0.48 | 0.30 | 0.51 | 0.0% |
Kumar et al.’s (1997) Global Creativity | 4 | 1,680 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.0% |
Çavuş’s (2006) Organizational Creativity | 4 | 2,108 | − 0.01 | − 0.01 | − 0.23 | 0.21 | − 0.17 | 0.15 | − 0.20 | 0.18 | 96.4% |
Location | |||||||||||
United States | 124 | 37,852 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 64.3% |
Asia | 25 | 6,386 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 84.3% |
Europe | 121 | 34,042 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 41.9% |
Middle East | 5 | 2,234 | 0.04 | 0.04 | − 0.16 | 0.24 | − 0.10 | 0.19 | − 0.13 | 0.22 | 95.6% |
Level of Analysis | |||||||||||
Individual | 115 | 32,463 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 66.1% |
Dyad | 28 | 12,988 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.21 | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.13 | 0.20 | 77.9% |
Team | 12 | 1,237 | 0.02 | 0.03 | − 0.11 | 0.11 | − 0.06 | 0.10 | − 0.09 | 0.12 | 86.8% |
Organizational | 120 | 33,826 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 41.2% |
Sample | |||||||||||
Student | 108 | 34,185 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 49.4% |
Employee | 148 | 40,825 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 66.1% |
Individual | 19 | 5,504 | − 0.04 | − 0.04 | − 0.11 | 0.07 | − 0.09 | 0.05 | − 0.11 | 0.07 | 88.9% |
Funding Status | |||||||||||
Unfunded | 156 | 43,915 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 70.4% |
Funded | 119 | 36,599 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 61.8% |
Publication Status | |||||||||||
Unpublished | 6 | 630 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.0% |
Published | 269 | 79,884 | − 0.20 | − 0.25 | − 0.29 | − 0.11 | − 0.26 | − 0.14 | − 0.29 | − 0.10 | 66.1% |
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Winchester, C., Medeiros, K.E. In Bounds but Out of the Box: A Meta-Analysis Clarifying the Effect of Ethicality on Creativity. J Bus Ethics 183, 713–743 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04990-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04990-2