Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Do silvopastoral management practices affect biological pest control in oil palm plantations?

  • Published:
BioControl Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The reliance of conventional oil palm production on agrochemicals to control understory vegetation has caused devastating impacts on the environment. Overuse of chemical herbicides leads to the decline of native biodiversity and production-related ecosystem services, including biological pest control. In contrast to herbicide applications, livestock integration is a chemical-free approach to eradicate weeds without negative consequences on the environment. In this sentinel prey experiment, we assessed the predation pressure (based upon the number of bite marks left by natural predators such as arthropods, birds, and mammals) in three oil palm plantations with different weeding practices (i.e., rotational grazing, free-range grazing, and conventional weeding) located on the south-west part of Peninsular Malaysia. We also investigated the effects of site level characteristics on the predation pressures of artificial caterpillars. Across all types of weeding systems, we found that the majority of the predation attempts on the deployed artificial caterpillars were made by arthropods (532 attempts), whereas mammals (66 attempts) and birds (60 attempts) played much smaller roles. Our results showed that predation pressures were consistent across sites indicating that oil palm-cattle integrated plantations (either free-range or rotational grazing systems) would experience similar level of pest control services as conventional herbicide-sprayed plantations. Our results also indicate the influence of site-level habitat variables (i.e., mean of palm heights, canopy cover, and elevation) on predation pressures. Our results suggest that livestock-oil palm integration may sustain natural predation with little or no herbicide input.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data will be provided by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  • Abdullah R, Ismail A, Rahman AK (2011) Labour requirements in the Malaysian oil palm industry in 2010. Oil Palm Ind Econ J 11(2):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Appanan M, Shahfiz MA, Fauzi NFM, Ruzman NA, Mahyudin NAA, Nafiz ZA, Yahya SN (2021) Checklist of small vertebrates at sime darby tangkah estate, tangkah, Johor. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 842:012026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf M, Sanusi R, Zulkifli R, Tohiran KA, Moslim R, Ashton-Butt A, Azhar B (2019) Alley-cropping system increases vegetation heterogeneity and moderates extreme microclimates in oil palm plantations. Agric for Meteorol 276:107632

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton-Butt A, Aryawan AA, Hood AS, Naim M, Purnomo D, Wahyuningsih R, Willcock S, Poppy GM, Caliman JP, Turner EC, Foster WA, Peh KS, Snaddon JL (2018) Understory vegetation in oil palm plantations benefits soil biodiversity and decomposition rates. Front for Glob Change 1:10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Lindenmayer DB, Wood J, Fischer J, Manning A, McElhinny C, Zakaria M (2011) The conservation value of oil palm plantation estates, smallholdings and logged peat swamp forest for birds. For Ecol Manag 262(12):2306–2315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Lindenmayer DB, Wood J, Fischer J, Manning A, Mcelhinny C, Zakaria M (2013) The influence of agricultural system, stand structural complexity and landscape context on foraging birds in oil palm landscapes. Ibis 155(2):297–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Lindenmayer DB, Wood J, Fischer J, Zakaria M (2014) Ecological impacts of oil palm agriculture on forest mammals in plantation estates and smallholdings. Biodivers Conserv 23(5):1175–1191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Saadun N, Puan CL, Kamarudin N, Aziz N, Nurhidayu S, Fischer J (2015) Promoting landscape heterogeneity to improve the biodiversity benefits of certified palm oil production: evidence from peninsular Malaysia. Glob Ecol Conserv 3:553–561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Saadun N, Prideaux M, Lindenmayer DB (2017) The global palm oil sector must change to save biodiversity and improve food security in the tropics. J Environ Manage 203:457–466

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Tohiran KA, Nobilly F, Zulkifli R, Syakir MI, Ishak Z, Razi N, Oon A, Shahdan A, Maxwell TM (2021a) Time to revisit oil palm-livestock integration in the wake of United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs). Front. Sustain. Food Syst 5:640285. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.640285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azhar B, Nobilly F, Lechner AM, Tohiran KA, Maxwell TM, Zulkifli R, Kamel MF, Oon A (2021b) Mitigating the risks of indirect land use change (ILUC) related deforestation from industrial palm oil expansion by sharing land access with displaced crop and cattle farmers. Land Use Pol 107:105498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman IJ, Coombes E, Fisher B, Fitzherbert E, Glew D, Niadoo R (2009) Saving Sumatra’s species: combining economics and ecology to define an efficient and self-sustaining program for inducing conservation within oil palm plantations. CSERGE working paper EDM http://hdl.handle.net/10419/48818. Accessed 15 February 2020

  • Brühl CA, Zaller JG (2019) Biodiversity decline as a consequence of an inadequate environmental risk assessment of pesticides. Front Environ Sci 7:177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung GF (2012) Effect of pests and diseases on oil palm yield. In: Lai OM, Tan CP, Akoh CC (eds) Palm oil–production, processing, characterization, and uses. AOCS Press, Illinois, pp 163–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Darras KF, Corre MD, Formaglio G, Tjoa A, Potapov A, Brambach F, Sibhatu KT, Grass I, Rubiano AA, Buchori D, Drescher J, Fardiansah R, Hölscher D, Irawan B, Kneib T, Krashevska V, Krause A, Kreft H, Li K, Maraun M, Polle A, Ryadin AR, Rembold K, Stiegler C, Scheu S, Tarigan S, Valdés-Uribe A, Yadi S, Tscharntke T, Veldkamp E (2019) Reducing fertilizer and avoiding herbicides in oil palm plantations—ecological and economic valuations. Front for Glob Change 2:65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Groot RS, Wilson MA, Boumans RMJ (2002) A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol Econ 41:393–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denan N, Wan Zaki WM, Norhisham AR, Sanusi R, Nasir DM, Nobilly F, Ashton-Butt A, Nasir DM, Lechner AM, Azhar B (2020) Predation of potential insect pests in oil palm plantations, rubber tree plantations, and fruit orchards. Ecol Evol 10(2):654–661

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denmead LH, Darras K, Clough Y, Diaz P, Grass I, Hoffmann MP, Nurdiansyah F, Fardiansah R, Tscharntke T (2017) The role of ants, birds and bats for ecosystem functions and yield in oil palm plantations. Ecology 98(7):1945–1956

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dudley N, Attwood SJ, Goulson D, Jarvis D, Bharucha ZP, Pretty J (2017) How should conservationists respond to pesticides as a driver of biodiversity loss in agroecosystems? Biol Conserv 209:449–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2020) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics Division. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. Accessed 15 February 2020

  • Ferrante M, Lo Cacciato A, Lövei GL (2014) Quantifying predation pressure along an urbanisation gradient in Denmark using artificial caterpillars. Eur J Entomol 111(5):649–654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster WA, Snaddon JL, Turner EC, Fayle TM, Cockerill TD, Ellwood MDF, Broad GR, Chung AYC, Eggleton P, Khen CV, Yusah KM (2011) Establishing the evidence base for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function in the oil palm landscapes of South East Asia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B: Biol Sci 366:3277–3291

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geiger F, Bengtsson J, Berendse F, Weisser WW, Emmerson M, Morales MB, Ceryngier P, Liira J, Tscharntke T, Winqvist C, Eggers S, Bommarco R, Part T, Bretagnolle V, Plantegenest M, Clement LW, Dennis C, Palmer C, Onate JJ, Guerrero I, Hawro V, Aavik T, Thies C, Flohre A, Hanke S, Fischer C, Goedhart PW, Inchausti P (2010) Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and biological control potential on European farmland. Basic Appl Ecol 11:97–105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray CL, Lewis OT (2014) Do riparian forest fragments provide ecosystem services or disservices in surrounding oil palm plantations? Basic Appl Ecol 15(8):693–700

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grinnell NA, van der Linden A, Azhar B, Nobilly F, Slingerland M (2022) Cattle-oil palm integration–a viable strategy to increase Malaysian beef self-sufficiency and palm oil sustainability. Livest Sci 259:04902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell Jr FE, Lee KL, Califf RM, Pryor DB, Rosati RA (1984) Regression modelling strategies for improved prognostic prediction. Stat Med 3(2):143–152

  • Harrell Jr FE, Lee KL, Mark DB (1996) Multivariable prognostic models: issues in developing models, evaluating assumptions and adequacy, and measuring and reducing errors. Stat Med 15(4):361–387

  • Hood AS, Advento AD, Stone J, Fayle TM, Fairnie AL, Waters HS, Foster WA, Snaddon JL, Ps S, Caliman JP, Naim M, Turner EC (2020) Removing understory vegetation in oil palm agroforestry reduces ground-foraging ant abundance but not species richness. Basic Appl Ecol 48:26–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe A, Lövei GL, Nachman G (2009) Dummy caterpillars as a simple method to assess predation rates on invertebrates in a tropical agroecosystem. Entomol Exp Appl 131(3):325–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ismail S, Tohiran KA (2008) Potentials for integration in oil palm plantations. Planter 84(986):303–319

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabul MA (2008) Successful development of a model for cattle integration in Sawit Kinabalu. Planter 84(993):813–819

    Google Scholar 

  • Koh LP (2008) Birds defend oil palms from herbivorous insects. Ecol Appl 18:821–825

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koh LP, Wilcove DS (2007) Cashing in palm oil for conservation. Nature 448(7157):993–994

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Köhler M, Hiller G, Tischew S (2016) Year-round horse grazing supports typical vascular plant species, orchids and rare bird communities in a dry calcareous grassland. Agric Ecosyst Environ 234:48–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konopik O, Gray CL, Grafe TU, Steffan-Dewenter I, Fayle TM (2014) From rainforest to oil palm plantations: Shifts in predator population and prey communities, but resistant interactions. Glob Ecol Conserv 2:385–394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latif J, Mamat MN (2002) A financial study of cattle integration in oil palm plantations. Oil Palm Ind Econ J 2(1):34–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Launchbaugh K, Walker J (2006) Targeted grazing. A natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry Association, Colorado

    Google Scholar 

  • Losey JE, Vaughan M (2006) The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. BioScience 56:311–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luke SH, Purnomo D, Advento AD, Aryawan AAK, Naim M, Pikstein RN, Ps S, Rambe DS, Soeprapto CJP, Snaddon JL, Foster WA, Turner EC (2019) Effects of understory vegetation management on plant communities in oil palm plantations in Sumatra. Indonesia Front for Glob Change 2:33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson B, Cederberg C, Blix L (2000) Agricultural land use in life cycle assessment (LCA): case studies of three vegetable oil crops. J Clean Prod 8:283–292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Md. Said MF, Man N, (2014) Evaluation of target area concentration (TAC) programme in Malaysia’s integrated cattle and oil palm farming. J Food Prod Market 20:151–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison ML, Block WM, Strickland MD, Collier BA, Peterson MJ (2008) Wildlife study design. Springer Science & Business Media, Heidelberg

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nair K (2001) Pest outbreaks in tropical forest plantations. Is there a greater risk for exotic tree species? Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor

    Google Scholar 

  • Nájera A, Simonetti JA (2010) Can oil palm plantations become bird friendly? Agroforest Syst 80:203–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nobilly F, Maxwell TMR, Yahya MS, Azhar B (2022a) Application of targeted goat grazing in oil palm plantations: assessment of weed preference, spatial use of grazing area and live weight change. J Oil Palm Res 34(2):289–299

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nobilly F, Atikah SN, Yahya MS, Jusoh S, Cun GS, Norhisham AR, Tohiran KA, Zulkifli R, Azhar B (2022b) Rotational cattle grazing improves understory vegetation biodiversity and structural complexity in oil palm plantations. Weed Biol Manag 22(1):13–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman K, Basri MW (2010) Interactions of the bagworm, Pteroma pendula (Lepidoptera: Phsycidae), and its natural enemies in an oil palm plantation in Perak. J Oil Palm Res 22:758–764

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurdiansyah F, Denmead LH, Clough Y, Wiegand K, Tscharntke T (2016) Biological control in Indonesian oil palm potentially enhanced by landscape context. Agric Ecosyst Environ 232:141–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Relyea RA (2006) The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities: response. Ecol Appl 16(5):2027–2034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Roux X, Barbault R, Baudry J, Burel F, Doussan I, Garnier E, Herzog F, Lavorel S, Lifran R, RogerEstrade J, Sarthou JP, Trommetter M (2008) Agriculture and biodiversity: benefiting from synergies. Multidisciplinary scientific assessment, synthesis report. INRA, France

  • Rutherford M, Flood J, Sastroutomo S (2011) Roundtable for sustainable palm oil (RSPO): research project on integrated weed management strategies for oil palm. Final Report. Available at https://rspo.org/wp-content/uploads/rspo-research-project-on-integrated-weed-management-strategies-for-oil-palm-english.pdf. Accessed 12 February 2020

  • Seifert CL, Lehner L, Adams MO, Fiedler K (2015) Predation on artificial caterpillars is higher in countryside than near-natural forest habitat in lowland south-western Costa Rica. J Trop Ecol 31(3):281–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slade EM, Burhanuddin MI, Caliman JP, Foster WA, Naim M, Prawirosukarto S, Snaddon JL, Turner EC, Mann DJ (2014) Can cattle grazing in mature oil palm increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision? The Planter 90(1062):655–665

    Google Scholar 

  • Tohiran KA, Nobilly F, Zulkifli R, Maxwell T, Moslim R, Azhar B (2017) Targeted cattle grazing as an alternative to herbicides for controlling weeds in bird-friendly oil palm plantations. Agron Sustain Dev 37(6):62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tohiran KA, Nobilly F, Zulkifli R, Ashton-Butt A, Azhar B (2019a) Cattle-grazing in oil palm plantations sustainably controls understory vegetation. Agric Ecosyst Environ 278:54–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tohiran KA, Nobilly F, Maxwell T, Puan CL, Zakaria M, Zulkifli R, Zulkifli E, Ashton-Butt A, Azhar B (2019b) Cattle grazing benefits farmland bird community composition in oil palm plantations. Ornithol Sci 18(1):81–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tohiran KA, Omar RZR, Ismail S, Omar W, Abdullah Z (2008) Integration of yellow cattle in oil palm. MPOB Information Series. Malaysia Palm Oil Board, Kuala Lumpur

  • Tscharntke T, Bommarco R, Clough Y, Crist TO, Kleijn D, Rand TA, Tylianakis JM, van Nouhuys S, Vidal S (2007) Conservation biological control and enemy diversity on a landscape scale. Biol Control 43:294–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner EC, Foster WA (2008) The impact of forest conversion to oil palm on arthropod abundance and biomass in Sabah. Malaysia J Trop Ecol 25(1):23–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tvardikova K, Novotny V (2012) Predation on exposed and leaf-rolling artificial caterpillars in tropical forests of Papua New Guinea. J Trop Ecol 28(4):331–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vijay V, Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Smith SJ (2016) The impacts of oil palm on recent deforestation and biodiversity loss. PLoS ONE 11(7):e0159668

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wakker E, Watch S, Rozario JD (2004) Greasy palms: the social and ecological impacts of large-scale oil palm plantation development in Southeast Asia. AIDEnvironment, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Wibawa W, Mohayidin MG, Mohamad RB, Juraimi AS, Omar D (2010) Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of three broad-spectrum herbicides to control weeds in immature oil palm plantation. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci 33:233–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Woittiez LS, van Wijk MT, Slingerland M, van Noordwijk M, Giller KE (2017) Yield gaps in oil palm: a quantitative review of contributing factors. Eur J Agron 83:57–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood BJ (1968) Pests of oil palms in Malaysia and their control. Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood BJ (2002) Pest control in Malaysia’s perennial crops: a half century perspective tracking the pathway to integrated pest management. Integrated Pest Manag Rev 7:173–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood BJ, Corley RHV, Goh KH (1973) Studies on the effect of pest damage on oil palm yield. In: Wastie, R.L., Earp, D.A. (eds). Advances in oil palm cultivation: proceedings of the international oil palm conference. The Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur, pp 360–377

  • Yahya MS, Puan CL, Azhar B, Atikah SN, Ghazali A (2016) Nocturnal bird composition in relation to habitat heterogeneity in small scale oil palm agriculture in Malaysia. Agric Ecosyst Environ 233:140–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yahya MS, Syafiq M, Ashton-Butt A, Ghazali A, Asmah S, Azhar B (2017) Switching from monoculture to polyculture farming benefits birds in oil palm production landscapes: evidence from mist-netting data. Ecol Evol 7(16):6314–6325

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yahya MS, Puan CL, Atikah SN, Azhar B (2020) Density and diversity of nocturnal birds in oil palm smallholdings in Peninsular Malaysia. J Oil Palm Res 32(1):57–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Yahya MS, Atikah SN, Mukri I, Sanusi R, Norhisham AR, Azhar B (2022) Agroforestry orchards support greater avian biodiversity than monoculture oil palm and rubber tree plantations. For Ecol Manag 513:120177

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the permission given by the authorised personnel and plantations managers of Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) and Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority (RISDA) to conduct the fieldwork in their properties. The authors would like to acknowledge all the logistic supports provided by staff members of Integration Research and Extension Division of Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB). The authors would also like to thank everyone involved in this study especially Mohd Fathil Kamel, Norazli Husin, Mohd Faiz Akmal, Nuradilah Denan, and Nurul Asyikin Yazed.

Funding

This study has been made possible through research grant (Geran Putra—Inisiatif Putra Muda, Project No.: GP-IPM/2018/9628200) provided by Universiti Putra Malaysia. Universiti Putra Malaysia, GP-IPM/2018/9628200.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Frisco Nobilly & Shokri Jusoh

  2. Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Sharifah Nur Atikah, Muhammad Syafiq Yahya, Ahmad Razi Norhisham, Kamil Azmi Tohiran & Badrul Azhar

  3. Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln, PO Box 85084, 7647, Christchurch, New Zealand

    Thomas M. R. Maxwell

  4. Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Ahmad Razi Norhisham

  5. Division of Integration Research and Extension, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Kamil Azmi Tohiran & Raja Zulkifli

  6. Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Badrul Azhar

  7. School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia

    Badrul Azhar

Authors
  1. Frisco Nobilly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sharifah Nur Atikah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Muhammad Syafiq Yahya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shokri Jusoh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Thomas M. R. Maxwell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ahmad Razi Norhisham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Kamil Azmi Tohiran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Raja Zulkifli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Badrul Azhar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

FN, SJ, ARN, KAT, RZ and BA conceived the ideas, designed methodology, and administered the research; SNA and MSY collected the data in the field; MSY analysed the data, provided references and drew the figures; FN, SNA, MSY, ARN, TMRM and BA led the writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed critically to the manuscript and gave final approval for publication.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Badrul Azhar.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Handling Editor: Dirk Babendreier

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 1696 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nobilly, F., Atikah, S.N., Yahya, M.S. et al. Do silvopastoral management practices affect biological pest control in oil palm plantations?. BioControl 68, 411–424 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-023-10196-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-023-10196-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation