Abstract
In the human–vehicle–road system of collisions, the human is the most important factor, and digital human models (DHMs) are developed with the aim of preventing or at least reducing human injury. Because most of the relevant literature is focused mainly on collisions in traffic accidents (TAs), only some of the literature reviewed in this paper involves research results on other aspects of collisions. In this review, based on the background of DHMs and the application of DHMs regarding human injury biomechanics in collisions field, research results regarding the development of DHMs are described, the methods for verifying such models are introduced, and the application of the research results is discussed based on the aspect of human injury biomechanics. From the research literature, the development and validation of DHMs and their application in human injury biomechanics are summarized, and future research trends are proposed and discussed.
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Introduction
With continuous increases in vehicle ownership (Fig. 1) and speed, TAs are occurring frequently, resulting in large casualty numbers (Fig. 2) and property losses.89,101,102 Because of the large population density in China, the number of road-traffic deaths has been high. In the United States and the European Union, where the population density is relatively large, road-traffic deaths account for 57.9 and 41.1%, respectively, of China’s.16,64 TAs pose serious threats to people’s lives and property in various countries. Therefore, to improve the safety of pedestrians and passengers and reduce human injury, it is necessary to develop DHMs for reverse reconstruction of traffic accidents and human injury analysis. This is especially the case given that the high accident mortality rate makes identifying human injury the most critical factor in accident reconstruction.9
Global distribution of vehicle ownership.
Global vehicle accident fatality statistics.
The objectives of the present paper are to (i) classify the development and validation of DHMs for collision accidents and (ii) review the application status of DHMs regarding human injury biomechanics. This review is structured as follows: ‘‘Introduction’’ provides some background into DHMs as well as the application of DHMs regarding human injury biomechanics in collisions field. ‘‘Methods’’ discusses how to design the search and what criteria to use to determine which articles to include in this review. ‘‘Development of Digital Human Models’’ classifies the development of DHMs for collisions based on enterprises, institutions, and research institutes of universities. Then, “Validation of Digital Human Models” summarizes the validation methods of DHMs for collisions. Next, “Application of Digital Human Models” reviews the study on human biomechanical injuries of different body parts. Finally, ‘‘Summary and Discussion’’ summarizes the research framework of this paper and proposes the future research directions.
Digital Human Models
The models of the human body that are used in the field of collisions are either dummy or human models (HMs), both of which come in either physical or digital form. Dummy models (DMs) are used mainly in standard vehicle crash tests, which are used to evaluate the passive safety of the vehicle and the safety of the occupants. When using a DM, there are strict requirements regarding the test conditions, calibration methods, and application scope. The biomechanical experiments of HMs are usually derived from cadavers or volunteer tests. They are used mainly to analyze the mechanisms for human injury and to evaluate human injury criteria and pedestrian protection. Corresponding to physical HMs are DHMs, which are validated by post-mortem human subject (PMHS) tests.47,55,83,109,110
DHMs are developed mainly to study the relationship between human injury and load, the aim being human protection. It is only in real-world collisions that it is possible to explore the relationship between injury and load through the physiological reaction of the injured. At the same time, human injury biomechanics is also an important basis for traffic safety research, providing clues for forensic identification and the handling of accidents by traffic police.78 Therefore, it is necessary to elaborate the application of DHMs regarding human injury biomechanics. Given the current situation regarding collision accidents in various countries, such models are being used in numerical simulations of collisions and human injuries.53
Human Injury Biomechanics
Human injury biomechanics is a special subject in the field of biomechanics, it being the study of injuries caused by the interaction between forces and the human body.8,46 Herein, it refers mainly to the biomechanics of human injury caused by collisions. The biomechanics of human injury is an interdisciplinary subject that involves studying the mechanisms and protection of human tissue or organ injury in the process of collision. In the field of human injury biomechanics, computer models have been used successfully in human body simulation to study the biomechanical responses and possible injury mechanisms of the human body.78 Note that the present review is concerned mostly with the application of DHMs to TAs involving vehicle collisions; most of the reviewed papers concern this aspect, but some come from the collision field more generally.
Experiments on human injury biomechanics are often restricted by some conditions.The main experimental methods include animal model experiments, physical model experiments, and cadaver experiment.20,78 Physical models have limitations in biological fidelity and material selection. Animal models are generally converted to human bodies by extrapolation, and show certain limitations in terms of mathematical meaning and experimental technology. cadaver experiments due to individual differences, the number of specimens is small and difficult to obtain. At the same time, the use of cadaver or animal experiments will also encounter the influence and restrictions of public ethical awareness. Due to the limitations of the above experiments, digital models have gradually become an important tool for studying injury biomechanics.
Human Injury biomechanics research uses the principles of mechanics to investigate and explain the physical and physiological responses to impact that result in injury. According to the injured parts of human body, it can be divided into head (brain), neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis and limbs.56 Each body part of the biomechanical injury has a variety of injury types and various mechanisms. In addition to the research on the injury mechanism, the injury tolerance limit, injury criteria and injury prevention measures are also constantly explored and studied.22 The broad goal of human injury biomechanics research is to understand the human injury process and develop methods to reduce or eliminate human structure and function injury that may occur in an impact environment.92
Methods
Articles were searched by keywords in ScienceDirect, Web of Science, CNKI, and Google Scholar databases. The search criteria are to determine articles related to human numerical models and biomechanical injury in the field of collisions. Firstly, a Boolean search(“collision OR vehicle crash OR traffic accident OR reconstruction”) was conducted across the four databases, and then search for (“digital human model OR numerical human model”) and (“human injury OR biomechanical”) in search results respectively. The titles and abstracts of all articles were firstly screened to exclude clearly irrelevant articles. Then, after reviewing the remaining articles and related references in the articles, through a discussion of these candidate articles by an experienced author and other authors, 110 articles were finally included for review.
Development of Digital Human Models
DHMs are either multi-rigid-body or finite element (FE) models. The former are represented by the TNO series of HMs developed by Siemens TASS International (as shown in Fig. 3). Multi-rigid-body DHMs are characterized by high computational efficiency, strong robustness, and simple modeling. However, their lack of muscle, skin, viscera, brain, and other human tissues means that they can neither (i) simulate accurately the vast majority of human organs nor (ii) reflect the stress distribution of local deformation of the human body and injury mechanism.78 In an effort to pursue more-accurate simulation results and provide a more scientific research basis, FE DHMs have become the research trend and focus and are playing an increasingly important role.83 In the early 1990s, Prasad and Chou69 reviewed most of the FE occupant simulation models and their applications in different crash modes. At the beginning of the 20th century at the Stapp Car Crash Conference, Yang et al.114 reviewed the recent improvement in HMs and their limitations. In recent decades, many researchers in universities, research institutions, and enterprises have been committed to the development of digital FE HMs in the field of collisions, especially regarding TAs.
TNO series of DHMs.
Enterprises and Institutions
Table 1 lists the whole-body DHMs developed by enterprises and institutions. The ESI Group (Paris), IPS International (Seoul), and the University of Hongyi (Seoul) jointly developed the H-Model, which was conceived primarily to study injury mechanisms and to assess injuries of the human skeleton and organs resulting from car accidents.31 The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) developed the SIMon FE DHM, which can directly simulate human injuries.1,14,18,85,94 The WSU DHM developed at the Bioengineering Center of Wayne State University has served many researchers and institutions as the basis for their development and research (including Ford, General Motors, Nissan, Toyota, ESI, and Mecalog).44,81 The Center for Injury Biomechanics of Wake Forest University and School of Medicine developed the GHBMC DHM, which is used for the subsequent nonlinear dynamics analysis and as the basis for developing the next generation of computational HMs for damage prediction and prevention.24,25 In cooperation with CEESAR, ENSAM, and INRETS, Peugeot Citroën Accident and Life Mechanics Laboratory developed a 50th-percentile male FE DHM known as the LAB human model.30,67 The Scientific Research Laboratory of the Ford Motor Company developed the Ford human body model, which has been useful for injury assessment in various cadaveric impacts.15,74,96 Before being acquired by Altair, the French company Mecalog developed its encrypted human organ model known as the HUMOS DHM.80,91 The head and skull models were developed in cooperation with the University of Strasbourg,104 and the lower-limb models were developed in cooperation with WSU.5,6 The THUMS DHM developed by the Toyota company of Japan has been the most widely studied, complex, and standard FE DHM in recent years.32,39 The main purpose of the model development is to simulate the dynamic response and injury mechanisms of human biomechanics in vehicle collisions.
Universities and Research Institutes
Compared with the DHMs developed by enterprises and institutions, those developed by universities and research institutes have a wide variety and are basically local FE models. They are usually based on DHMs developed by enterprises and institutions, and funded by private enterprises, organizations or government agencies for further redevelopment, validation and refinement. Table 2 gives the overview of human FE models developed by universities and research. Because the head and neck are the most critical regions of injury, the neck FE model with different functions and characteristics is one of the focus of development and research.50,51 It should be noted that the modeling method of the brain is not considered here, instead, interested readers can consult the wealth of research available in this field starting with the recent review papers.54,79 In collision accidents, as well as head and neck injuries, limb injuries are extremely common, especially lower-limb fractures. Because the thorax contains visceral organs, modeling it is complex. Also, the chest is not the most common injury region in an accident (compared to the head, neck, and limbs), so the development of this region in human FE models is focused mostly on the chest bone or a certain viscus. FE models of the waist and buttocks have also been developed and studied. Regarding models of the entire human body, most are developed and improved based on existing programs and models. For non-standard DHMs (i.e., those with parameters such as obesity and height), the University of Michigan has conducted many studies on the development, validation, and influence of various parameters.35,37,38,45,65,66,71,72,98,103,105,119,120
The distribution of DHM research shows few multi-rigid-body DHMs and mostly FE ones. An FE DHM provides the stress distribution of various regions of the body during a collision, as well as other complex biomechanical phenomena that are difficult to obtain in experiments, such as the influence of muscle activity, the interaction of fluid flow, and the change of surrounding tissue shape. However, because many elements are needed to describe the complex human body, the amount of calculation is very large when designing the nonlinear constitutive characteristics and large deformation of materials. Even if done with parallel computing on a high-performance computer, model calculations take a long time, which greatly reduces the efficiency of accident reconstruction. Also, most of the development of FE DHMs is designed for a certain region of demand, such as lower-limb, upper-limb, or head and neck FE DHMs, there being a lack of systematic and general DHM development.106
Validation of Digital Human Models
It is necessary to validate DHMs, especially in different working conditions. Due to the complexity of the working conditions, the verification work is quite difficult. Table 3 gives the validation methods that are used most widely. Considering the 50th-percentile facet Q and TNO series models of Siemens TASS International and the THUMS series of FE DHMs of Toyota, the TASS International ones have been validated by blunt-impact and segmented PMHS tests,84 and the THUMS ones have been validated by literature comparative simulation.88 These two DHM validation methods are also the main internationally adopted and recognized ones. DHMs can also be validated by sled tests, live human test and comparison based on TA reconstruction.52,58,59
In some countries (such as China), the pressure of ethics and public opinion has constrained the development of DHM validation tests, and PMHS tests are difficult to carry out, so DHM validation has become difficult. In view of the current development of DHMs, very few are validated by PMHS tests, most are validated by comparison with existing literature, and a few are validated by sled experiments, TA reconstruction, and live human test. The existing rigid-flexible coupling DHMs rarely pay attention to the validation of the rigid-flexible coupling connection part, and most of them are validated based on the above methods.10
Application of Digital Human Models
DHMs are developed mainly to study the relationship between human injury and load, the aim being human protection. In the field of vehicle collisions, it is DHMs that are used most widely for TAs. It is only in real-world vehicle collisions that it is possible to explore the relationship between injury and load through the physiological reaction of the injured. At the same time, human injury biomechanics is also an important basis for traffic safety research, providing clues for forensic identification and the handling of accidents by traffic police.78 Therefore, the main applications of DHMs are elaborated regarding human injury biomechanics. Among human body injured parts, head/brain injury is the most studied, followed by limbs and other regions. The following figures show the forensic identification and FE injury of the human lower limb and brain, as shown in Fig. 4.
Table 4 gives an overview on the application of human biomechanical injury, and mainly elaborates from the head, limbs and other parts. Regarding human head injuries, the most analyzed is fracture, followed by soft-tissue injury and other aspects of research. Most research to date on the biomechanics of human limb injury has been aimed at the lower limbs, with relatively little attention being paid to the upper limbs. Lower-limb injury is affected by age, gender, and body mass index.61,73 Although the injury mechanisms of individual regions of the human body are very complex, sometimes based on the injury situation, the brain and lower limbs, which tend to suffer serious injury in collisions, are analyzed together.11,124 In addition to the head and limbs, the study of chest injury is relatively rare, and it mostly occurred in the elderly and obese people.7,42,62,63 Similar findings were also reported by many other researchers in motor-vehicle crashes.12,93
The results and data on injury biomechanics that have been accumulated over the past 40 years form an indispensable basis for establishing pedestrian protection detection standards, test procedures, and evaluation methods. These related injury parameters can be used as the basis for the safety design and performance evaluation of vehicle front structures. However, there is still a lack of in-depth research on the biomechanical problems of some human injuries—such as craniocerebral, cervical, and thoracic trauma and their injury mechanisms.
Summary and Discussion
This paper describes the development, validation and application of DHMs based on the field of collisions (especially TAs), and it provides a broad perspective for the analysis of human injury and protection measures in vehicle collisions. Figure 5a shows the three aspects described in this paper. First, the development status of DHMs was introduced. Second, the validation methods based on the developed DHMs were described. Third, the application of DHMs to human biomechanical injuries based on collisions was discussed.
(a) Overall process of this review. (b) Limitations of current research methods and focus of next steps.
Although there has been significant progress in the development and application of DHMs over the years, some aspects still require more attention. Figure 5b shows the limitations of current research and the focus of the next steps.
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The existing development of the DHM is a single multi-rigid-body, FE or a region of the human body FE model, lack of common modular DHM development. To address the problems of efficiency and accuracy in numerical simulations, future research should focus on the development of a rigid–flexible coupling modular DHM. According to demand, an FE model is used for the collision region of the body to simulate the biomechanics of fracture and brain injury, and multi-rigid bodies are used for the other regions.
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The rigid-flexible coupling DHM has a relatively complex structure and is less developed, therefore, the existing validation of the DHM is based on a single multi-rigid-body or FE validation. The validation method of rigid-flexible coupling DHM has become the difficulty and the focus of the next research, especially the validation of the rigid-flexible coupling joints of human body, is particularly difficult.
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Most research to date on human injury biomechanics based on collisions has focused on injuries of the brain and limbs, but other regions and complex biomechanical phenomena have received less attention. Therefore, future research should also focus on the complex mechanism of muscle activity and blood flow, as well as the injury mechanisms of internal organs and other regions, and the properties of human tissue materials, especially under dynamic conditions—all of which require further study in the field of automobile safety.
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The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFB0201800) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11772192).
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Wang, Q., Lou, Y., Li, T. et al. Development and Application of Digital Human Models in the Field of Vehicle Collisions: A Review. Ann Biomed Eng 49, 1619–1632 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-021-02794-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-021-02794-z