Abstract
Lightning-generated nitrogen oxides (LNOx) have a major influence on the atmosphere and global climate change. Therefore, it is of great importance to obtain a more accurate estimation of LNOx. The aim of this study is to provide a reference for the accurate estimation of the total LNOx in the mainland of China based on cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) location data from 2014 to 2018. The energy of each CG flash was based on the number of return strokes per CG flash, the peak current of each return stroke, and the assumed CG breakdown voltage. The energy of intracloud lightning (IC) was based on the estimated frequencies of IC and the assumed energy of each IC flash. Combining the energy of lightning and the number of nitric oxide (NO) molecules produced by unit energy (ρno), the total LNOx production in the mainland of China was determined. The LNOx in the mainland of China estimated in this study is in the range (0.157–0.321) × 109 kg per year [Tg(N) yr−1], which is on the high end of other scholars’ works. Negative cloud-to-ground lightning (NCG) flashes produce the most moles of NOx, while positive cloud-to-ground lightning (PCG) flashes produce the least total moles of NOx. The breakdown voltage of PCG is greater than that of IC or NCG, while the latter has a greater output of LNOx.
摘 要
闪电产生氮氧化物(LNOx)对大气和全球气候变化具有重要影响, 因此, 得到更准确的LNOx估算具有重要意义. 利用2014~2018年地闪(CG)定位数据，旨在为准确估算中国大陆地区LNOx总量提供参考. 通过每个CG的回击次数、 每个回击的峰值电流和假设的地闪击穿电压得到每个地闪的能量. 估算云闪(IC)频次和假设每个云闪的能量得到云闪的总能量. 结合闪电能量和单位能量产生的一氧化氮(NO)分子数(ρno), 确定中国大陆地区LNOx的总产量. 中国大陆地区LNOx总产量为0.157 ~ 0.321×109 kg/年[Tg(N) yr−1], 位于其他学者的偏高一端. 负地闪(NCG)产生的氮氧化物（NOx）最多, 而正地闪(PCG)产生的NOx最少. 正地闪的击穿电压大于云闪或负地闪的, 但后者的NOx产量更大.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Antonescu, B., and S. Burcea, 2010: A cloud-to-ground lightning climatology for Romania. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 579–591, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2975.1.
Bandholnopparat, K., M. Sato, T. Adachi, T. Ushio, and Y. Takahashi, 2020: Estimation of the IC to CG ratio using JEM-GLIMS and ground-based lightning network data. J. Geophys. Res., 125(23), e2019JD032195, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD032195.
Baranski, P., M. Loboda, J. Wiszniowski, and M. Morawski, 2012: Evaluation of multiple ground flash charge structure from electric field measurements using the local lightning detection network in the region of Warsaw. Atmos. Res., 117, 99–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.10.011.
Beirle, S., H. Huntrieser, and T. Wagner, 2010: Direct satellite observation of lightning-produced NOX. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10(22), 10965–10986, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-10965-2010.
Beirle, S., W. Koshak, R. Blakeslee, and T. Wagner, 2014: Global patterns of lightning properties derived by OTD and LIS. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14(10), 2715–2726, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-2715-2014.
Boccippio, D. J., K. L. Cummins, H. J. Christian, and S. J. Goodman, 2001: Combined satellite- and surface-based estimation of the intracloud-cloud-to-ground lightning ratio over the continental United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 108–122, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0108:CSASBE>2.0.CO;2.
Borucki, W. J., and W. L. Chameides, 1984: Lightning: Estimates of the rates of energy dissipation and nitrogen fixation. Rev. Geophys., 22(4), 363–372, https://doi.org/10.1029/rg022i004p00363.
Brook, M., and T. Ogawa, 1977: The cloud discharge. Physics of Lightning, R. Golde, Ed., Academic Press, 191–230.
Bucsela, E. J., and Coauthors, 2010: Lightning-generated NOX seen by the ozone monitoring instrument during NASA’s tropical composition, cloud and climate coupling experiment (TC4). J. Geophys. Res., 115, D00J10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jd013118.
Carey, L. D., W. Koshak, H. Peterson, and R. M. Mecikalski, 2016: The kinematic and microphysical control of lightning rate, extent, and NOX production. J. Geophys. Res., 121, 7975–7989, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD024703.
Cecil, D. J., D. E. Buechler, and R. J. Blakeslee, 2014: Gridded lightning climatology from TRMM-LIS and OTD: Dataset description. Atmos. Res., 135–136, 404–414, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.06.028.
Chen, J. H., Q. Zhang, W. X. Feng, and Y. H. Fang, 2008: Lightning location system and lightning detection network of China power grid. High Voltage Engineering, 34(3), 425–431. (in Chinese with English abstract)
CMA, 2010: China Lightning Monitoring Reports (2009). China Meteorological Press. (in Chinese)
CMA, 2018: China Lightning Monitoring Reports (2017). China Meteorological Press. (in Chinese)
Cooray, V., M. Rahman, and V. Rakov, 2009: On the NOX production by laboratory electrical discharges and lightning. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 71(17–18), 1877–1889, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.009.
Crutzen, P. J., 1974: Photochemical reactions initiated by and influencing ozone in unpolluted tropospheric air. Tellus, 26(1–2), 47–57, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9736.
Cummins, K. L., M. J. Murphy, E. A. Bardo, W. L. Hiscox, R. B. Pyle, and A. E. Pifer, 1998: A combined TOA/MDF technology upgrade of the U.S. national lightning detection network. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D8), 9035–9044, https://doi.org/10.1029/98jd00153.
Davis, T. C., S. A. Rutledge, and B. R. Fuchs, 2019: Lightning location, NOX production, and transport by anomalous and normal polarity thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res., 124, 8722–8742, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029979.
de Souza, P. E., O. Pinto Jr., I. R. C. A. Pinto, N. J. Ferreira, and A. F. dos Santos}, 2009}: The intracloud/cloud-to-ground lightning ratio in Southeastern Brazil}. Atmospheric Research}, 91(2–4)}, 491–499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.06.011
Diendorfer, G., 2007: Lightning location systems (LLS). Proc. IX Int. Symposium on Lightning Protection, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.
Du, J., Y. J. Zhang, and M. H. Yan, 2002: Regional characteristic calculation of lightning production of nitrogen oxides (LNOX) (II): Analysis on calculation result of LNOX. Plateau Meteorology, 21(5), 433–440, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2002.05.001. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Gao, J. G., Y. Liu, and W. Piao, 2019: Analysis on the characteristics of lightning current amplitude in Beijing area using ADTD data. Torrential Rain and Disasters, 38(1), 92–96, https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9045.2019.01.012. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Griffiths, R. F., and C. T. Phelps, 1976a: A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development. J. Geophys. Res., 81(21), 3671–3676, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC081i021p03671.
Griffiths, R. F., and C. T. Phelps, 1976b: The effects of air pressure and water vapour content on the propagation of positive corona streamers, and their implications to lightning initiation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102(432), 419–426, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710243211.
Guo, F. X., M. Bao, Y. J. Mu, Z. P. Liu, Y. W. Li, and H. F. Shi, 2016: Temporal and spatial characteristics of lightning-produced nitrogen oxides in China. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 149, 100–107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2016.10.007.
Guo, F. X., X. Y. Ju, M. Bao, G. Y. Lu, Z. P. Liu, Y. W. Li, and Y. J. Mu, 2017: Relationship between lightning activity and tropospheric nitrogen dioxide and the estimation of lightning-produced nitrogen oxides over China. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 34(2), 235–245, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-016-6087-x.
Hill, R. D., 1971: Channel heating in return-stroke lightning. J. Geophys. Res., 76(3), 637–645, https://doi.org/10.1029/jc076i003p00637.
Ju, X. Y., F. X. Guo, M. Bao, Y. J. Mu, and T. X. Zheng, 2015: Estimation of lightning-generated NOX in inland China by comparison of the lightning activity and NO2 distribution over the Tibetan Plateau. Climatic and Environmental Research, 20(5), 523–532, https://doi.org/10.3878/j.issn.1006-9585.2015.14252. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Levine, J. S., T. R. Augustsson, I. C. Andersont, J. M. Hoell Jr, and D. A. Brewer, 1984: Tropospheric sources of NOX: Lightning and biology. Atmos. Environ., 18(9), 1797–1804, https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(84)90355-X.
Li, J. X., F. X. Guo, H. B. Hu, R. J. Li, M. H. Qian, and W. A. Xiao, 2017: Comparative analysis of SAFIR and ADTD lightning location data over Beijing and its circumjacent regions. Plateau Meteorology, 36(4), 1115–1126. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Ma, M., S. C. Tao, B. Y. Zhu, and W. T. Lü, 2005: Climatological distribution of lightning density observed by satellites in China and its circumjacent regions. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences, 48(2), 219–229, https://doi.org/10.1360/03yd0204.
Maggio, C. R., T. C. Marshall, and M. Stolzenburg, 2009: Estimations of charge transferred and energy released by lightning flashes. J. Geophys. Res., 114, D14203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011506.
Marshall, T. C., M. P. McCarthy, and W. D. Rust, 1995: Electric field magnitudes and lightning initiation in thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res., 100(D4), 7097–7103, https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD00020.
Mecikalski, R. M., and L. D. Carey, 2018: Radar reflectivity and altitude distributions of lightning as a function of IC, CG, and HY Flashes: Implications for LNOX production. J. Geophys. Res., 123, 12796–12813, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029263.
Medici, G., K. L. Cummins, D. J. Cecil, W. J. Koshak, and S. D. Rudlosky, 2017: The intracloud lightning fraction in the contiguous United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 145(11), 4481–4499, https://doi.org/10.1175/mwr-d-16-0426.1.
Ogawa, T., and M. Brook, 1964: The mechanism of the intracloud lightning discharge. J. Geophys. Res., 69(24), 5141–5150, https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ069i024p05141.
Peyrous, R., and R. M. Lapeyre, 1982: Gaseous products created by electrical discharges in the atmosphere and condensation nuclei resulting from gaseous phase reactions. Atmos. Environ., 16(5), 959–968, https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(82)90182-2.
Price, C., J. Penner, and M. Prather, 1997: NOX from lightning: 1. Global distribution based on lightning physics. J. Geophys. Res., 102(D5), 5929–5941, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD03504.
Rakov, V. A., and M. A. Uman, 2003: Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge University Press, 44, 81, 82.
Schumann, U., and H. Huntrieser, 2007: The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 7(14), 3823–3907, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3823-2007.
Sisterson, D. L., and Y. P. Liaw, 1990: An evaluation of lightning and corona discharge on thunderstorm air and precipitation chemistry. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 10(1), 83–96, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01980039.
Soriano, L. R., and F. de Pablo, 2007: Total flash density and the intracloud/cloud-to-ground lightning ratio over the Iberian Peninsula. J. Geophys. Res., 112(D13), D13114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007624.
Stolzenburg, M., W. D. Rust, and T. C. Marshall, 1998a: Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 2. Isolated storms. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D12), 14079–14096, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD03547.
Stolzenburg, M., W. D. Rust, and T. C. Marshall, 1998b: Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 3. Synthesis. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D12), 14097–14108, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD03545.
Stolzenburg, M., W. D. Rust, B. F. Smull, and T. C. Marshall, 1998c: Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions: 1. Mesoscale convective systems. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D12), 14059–14078, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD03546.
Sun, A. P., J. Du, Y. J. Zhang, and M. H. Yan, 2004: Calculation of global characteristics of NOX produced by lightning. Plateau Meteorology, 23(4), 481–487, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2004.04.010. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Uman, M. A., R. E. Orville, and L. E. Salanave, 1964: The density, pressure, and particle distribution in a lightning stroke near peak temperature. J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 306–310, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1964)021<0306:TDPAPD>2.0.CO;2.
Verma, S., P. K. Yadava, D. M. Lal, R. K. Mall, H. Kumar, and S. Payra, 2021: Role of lightning NOX in ozone formation: A review. Pure Appl. Geophys., 178(4), 1425–1443, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-021-02710-5.
Wang, H. L., F. X. Guo, T. L. Zhao, M. O. Qin, and L. Zhang, 2016: A numerical study of the positive cloud-to-ground flash from the forward flank of normal polarity thunderstorm. Atmospheric Research, 169, 183–190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.10.011.
Wang, J., and Y. Chen, 2015: Analysis of the 2009–2012 lightning distribution characteristics in China. Meteorological Monthly, 42(2), 160–170. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Wang, Y., A. W. DeSilva, G. C. Goldenbaum, and R. R. Dickerson, 1998: Nitric oxide production by simulated lightning: Dependence on current, energy, and pressure. J. Geophys. Res., 103(D15), 19149–19159, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD01356.
Weiss, S. A., D. R. MacGorman, and K. M. Calhoun, 2012: Lightning in the anvils of supercell thunderstorms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 140(7), 2064–2079, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00312.1.
Winn, W. P., G. W. Schwede, and C. B. Moore, 1974: Measurements of electric fields in thunderclouds. J. Geophys. Res., 79(12), 1761–1767, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC079i012p01761.
Xia, R. D., D. L. Zhang, and B. L. Wang, 2015: A 6-yr cloud-to-ground lightning climatology and its relationship to rainfall over central and eastern China. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 54, 2443–2460, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0029.1.
Yadava, P. K., M. Soni, S. Verma, H. Kumar, A. Sharma, and S. Payra, 2020: The major lightning regions and associated casualties over India. Natural Hazards, 101, 217–229, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-03870-8.
Yuan, T., and X. S. Qie, 2004: Spatial and temporal distributions of lightning activities in China from satellite observation. Plateau Meteorology, 23(4), 488–494, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2004.04.011. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhang, R., G. S. Zhang, Y. J. Li, Y. H. Wang, B. Wu, H. Yu, and Y. X. Liu, 2014: Estimate of NOX production in the lightning channel based on three-dimensional lightning locating system. Science China Earth Sciences, 57(7), 1613–1625, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-013-4812-1.
Zhang, Y. J., M. H. Yan, and J. Du, 2002: Regional characteristic calculation of lightning production of nitrogen oxides (LNOX)(I): Theory and calculation method. Plateau Meteorology, 21(4), 348–353, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2002.04.002. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zheng, D., Y. J. Zhang, Q. Meng, L. W. Chen, and J. R. Dan, 2016: Climatological comparison of small- and large-current cloud-to-ground lightning flashes over southern China. J. Climate, 29(8), 2831–2848, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0386.1.
Zhou, Y. J., and X. S. Qie, 2002: Mechanism and estimation of lightning-generated NOX in Chinese inland area. Plateau Meteorology, 21(5), 501–508, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2002.05.010. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhou, Y. J., X. S. Qie, M. H. Yan, and G. S. Zhang, 2003: Ground observation of NOX generated by lightning in thunderstorm weather. Plateau Meteorology, 22(3), 275–280, https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0534.2003.03.011. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Zhu, J., 2016: The comparison and analysis of lightning characteristic in China using satellite-based and ground-based observed data. Volume II, Proc. of 2016 Academic Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Environmental Sciences, Haikou, Chinese Society of Environmental Sciences, 272–278. (in Chinese)
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 91537209 and 91644224). We acknowledge the free use of cloud-to-ground locating data from China Meteorological Administration.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Article Highlights
• Based on cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) location data, the energy of each CG flash and the frequencies of intracloud lightning (IC) were estimated.
• The lightning-generated nitrogen oxides (LNOx) estimation for the mainland of China is between 0.157 Tg(N) yr−1 and 0.321 Tg(N) yr−1, which is on the high end of other studies.
• Compared to positive cloud-to-ground lightning, intracloud lightning and negative cloud-to-ground lightning have greater output of lightning-generated nitrogen oxides.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, Q., Guo, F., Ju, X. et al. Estimation of Lightning-Generated NOx in the Mainland of China Based on Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Location Data. Adv. Atmos. Sci. 40, 129–143 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-022-1329-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-022-1329-6
Keywords
- cloud-to-ground lightning location
- lightning peak current
- lightning breakdown voltage
- nitrogen oxide (NOx)