Abstract
Although 30 years have passed since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted in 1992, few attempts have been made to evaluate its impact on protected areas. This study investigates the relationship between participation in the CBD and conservation effort in member countries, using an original dataset of 169 countries from 1992 to 2015. Our measure of conservation effort is the percentage of a country’s terrestrial area under protection, which is the primary mechanism for achieving the CBD’s conservation as distinct from its sustainable use or access and benefit-sharing objectives. We consider how protected area expansion relates to membership of the CBD, and a set of socio-economic and political variables that measure both the opportunity cost of conservation and national responsiveness to the demand for public goods. We find a positive and significant relationship between the area under protection, membership of the CBD, and a dummy for the Aichi biodiversity targets-Nagoya protocol. We also find that the area under protection is negatively related to measures of economic development and education (proxies for the opportunity cost of conservation), and positively associated with forest area (a proxy for species richness and endemism). We conclude that, at least for this measure of conservation effort, the CBD has had a significant impact, albeit moderated in predictable ways by the opportunity cost of conservation.
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18 May 2023
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-023-01831-y
Notes
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972 considered common principles for the preservation and enhancement of the human environment. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, reaffirmed the Declaration of the Stockholm Conference in 1972, and established a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of society, and people, through international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2021)
Young (1999) defines effectiveness as “the contributions that institutions make to solve the problems that motivate actors” (p 3). Underdal (2004) provided three critical determinants of effectiveness: the nature of the problem, characteristics of the group of parties, and properties of the regime itself
The Nagoya Protocol clarifies access and benefit-sharing obligations in Article 8, entitled “Special Consideration” and Article 10 entitled “Global Multilateral Benefit-sharing Mechanism.” Moreover, Article 14 entitled “The Access and Benefit-sharing Clearing-House and Information Sharing” provides a basis for the establishment of the Access and Benefit-sharing Clearing-House (ABS Clearing-House) and supports its activities (CBD 2022). It is noteworthy that access and benefit-sharing has proven fraught as evidenced by the very existence of the Nagoya Protocol and the most recent Decision 15/9 to grapple with dematerialized genetic resources as if they were out of the scope of the CBD
The CBD was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. The year of entry into force was 29 December 1993, which is 90 days after the 30th ratification (CBD 2022)
This study adopts “Industry (Including Construction), Value Added (Current US$)” from the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the variable industry, which represents secondary industries including manufacturing, construction, and energy generation. This corresponds to ISIC divisions 10–45 (World Bank 2021)
In appendix 1, * indicates the countries that are not included in the analysis of this study due to data limitation
The WDPA is a joint project between the UNEP and the IUCN and is managed by UNEP-WCMC. The protected areas in the WDPA include sites under the Ramsar Convention, the World Heritage Convention, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and the Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC 2016)
This index represents the government with four sub-attributes—clean elections, inclusive suffrage, free political parties, and elected government—which denote that elections for national, representative political office are free from irregularities; adult citizens have equal and universal passive and active voting rights; political parties are free to form and campaign for political office; and national, representative government offices are filled through elections, respectively (IDEA 2019)
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by YK. The first draft of the manuscript was written by YK and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Appendix 1. List and Status of Parties of CBD
Appendix 1. List and Status of Parties of CBD
No. | Country Name | Signed | Ratification Status | Party |
|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Afghanistan | 1992-06-12 | 2002-09-19 | 2002-12-18 |
2. | Albania | 1994-01-05 | 1994-04-05 | |
3. | Algeriaa | 1992-06-13 | 1995-08-14 | 1995-11-12 |
4. | Andorraa | 2015-02-04 | 2015-05-05 | |
5. | Angola | 1992-06-12 | 1998-04-01 | 1998-06-30 |
6. | Antigua and Barbudaa | 1992-06-05 | 1993-03-09 | 1993-12-29 |
7. | Argentina | 1992-06-12 | 1994-11-22 | 1995-02-20 |
8. | Armenia | 1992-06-13 | 1993-05-14 | 1993-12-29 |
9. | Australia | 1992-06-05 | 1993-06-18 | 1993-12-29 |
10. | Austria | 1992-06-13 | 1994-08-18 | 1994-11-16 |
11. | Azerbaijan | 1992-06-12 | 2000-08-03 | 2000-11-01 |
12. | Bahamas | 1992-06-12 | 1993-09-02 | 1993-12-29 |
13. | Bahrain | 1992-06-09 | 1996-08-30 | 1996-11-28 |
14. | Bangladesh | 1992-06-05 | 1994-05-03 | 1994-08-01 |
15. | Barbados | 1992-06-12 | 1993-12-10 | 1994-03-10 |
16. | Belarus | 1992-06-11 | 1993-09-08 | 1993-12-29 |
17. | Belgium | 1992-06-05 | 1996-11-22 | 1997-02-20 |
18. | Belize | 1992-06-13 | 1993-12-30 | 1994-03-30 |
19. | Benin | 1992-06-13 | 1994-06-30 | 1994-09-28 |
20. | Bhutan | 1992-06-11 | 1995-08-25 | 1995-11-23 |
21. | Bolivia (Plurinational State of) | 1992-06-13 | 1994-10-03 | 1995-01-01 |
22. | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 2002-08-26 | 2002-11-24 | |
23. | Botswana | 1992-06-08 | 1995-10-12 | 1996-01-10 |
24. | Brazil | 1992-06-05 | 1994-02-28 | 1994-05-29 |
25. | Brunei Darussalam | 2008-04-28 | 2008-07-27 | |
26. | Bulgaria | 1992-06-12 | 1996-04-17 | 1996-07-16 |
27. | Burkina Faso | 1992-06-12 | 1993-09-02 | 1993-12-29 |
28. | Burundi | 1992-06-11 | 1997-04-15 | 1997-07-14 |
29. | Cabo Verde | 1992-06-12 | 1995-03-29 | 1995-06-27 |
30. | Cambodia | 1995-02-09 | 1995-05-10 | |
31. | Cameroon | 1992-06-14 | 1994-10-19 | 1995-01-17 |
32. | Canada | 1992-06-11 | 1992-12-04 | 1993-12-29 |
33. | Central African Republic | 1992-06-13 | 1995-03-15 | 1995-06-13 |
34. | Chad | 1992-06-12 | 1994-06-07 | 1994-09-05 |
35. | Chile | 1992-06-13 | 1994-09-09 | 1994-12-08 |
36. | China | 1992-06-11 | 1993-01-05 | 1993-12-29 |
37. | Colombia | 1992-06-12 | 1994-11-28 | 1995-02-26 |
38. | Comorosa | 1992-06-11 | 1994-09-29 | 1994-12-28 |
39. | Congo | 1992-06-11 | 1996-08-01 | 1996-10-30 |
40. | Cook Islandsa | 1992-06-12 | 1993-04-20 | 1993-12-29 |
41. | Costa Rica | 1992-06-13 | 1994-08-26 | 1994-11-24 |
42. | Côte d’Ivoire | 1992-06-10 | 1994-11-29 | 1995-02-27 |
43. | Croatia | 1992-06-11 | 1996-10-07 | 1997-01-05 |
44. | Cuba | 1992-06-12 | 1994-03-08 | 1994-06-06 |
45. | Cyprus | 1992-06-12 | 1996-07-10 | 1996-10-08 |
46. | Czech Republic | 1993-06-04 | 1993-12-03 | 1994-03-03 |
47. | Democratic People’s Republic of Korea | 1992-06-11 | 1994-10-26 | 1995-01-24 |
48. | Democratic Republic of the Congo* | 1992-06-11 | 1994-12-03 | 1995-03-03 |
49. | Denmark | 1992-06-12 | 1993-12-21 | 1994-03-21 |
50. | Djiboutia | 1992-06-13 | 1994-09-01 | 1994-11-30 |
51. | Dominica | 1994-04-06 | 1994-07-05 | |
52. | Dominican Republic | 1992-06-13 | 1996-11-25 | 1997-02-23 |
53. | Ecuador | 1992-06-09 | 1993-02-23 | 1993-12-29 |
54. | Egypt | 1992-06-09 | 1994-06-02 | 1994-08-31 |
55. | El Salvador | 1992-06-13 | 1994-09-08 | 1994-12-07 |
56. | Equatorial Guinea | 1994-12-06 | 1995-03-06 | |
57. | Eritrea | 1996-03-21 | 1996-06-19 | |
58. | Estonia | 1992-06-12 | 1994-07-27 | 1994-10-25 |
59. | Ethiopia | 1992-06-10 | 1994-04-05 | 1994-07-04 |
60. | European Uniona | 1992-06-13 | 1993-12-21 | 1994-03-21 |
61. | Fiji | 1992-10-09 | 1993-02-25 | 1993-12-29 |
62. | Finland | 1992-06-05 | 1994-07-27 | 1994-10-25 |
63. | France | 1992-06-13 | 1994-07-01 | 1994-09-29 |
64. | Gabon | 1992-06-12 | 1997-03-14 | 1997-06-12 |
65. | Gambia (the) | 1992-06-12 | 1994-06-10 | 1994-09-08 |
66. | Georgia | 1994-06-02 | 1994-08-31 | |
67. | Germany | 1992-06-12 | 1993-12-21 | 1994-03-21 |
68. | Ghana | 1992-06-12 | 1994-08-29 | 1994-11-27 |
69. | Greece | 1992-06-12 | 1994-08-04 | 1994-11-02 |
70. | Grenada | 1992-12-03 | 1994-08-11 | 1994-11-09 |
71. | Guatemala | 1992-06-13 | 1995-07-10 | 1995-10-08 |
72. | Guinea | 1992-06-12 | 1993-05-07 | 1993-12-29 |
73. | Guinea-Bissau | 1992-06-12 | 1995-10-27 | 1996-01-25 |
74. | Guyana | 1992-06-13 | 1994-08-29 | 1994-11-27 |
75. | Haiti | 1992-06-13 | 1996-09-25 | 1996-12-24 |
76. | Honduras | 1992-06-13 | 1995-07-31 | 1995-10-29 |
77. | Hungary | 1992-06-13 | 1994-02-24 | 1994-05-25 |
78. | Iceland | 1992-06-10 | 1994-09-12 | 1994-12-11 |
79. | India | 1992-06-05 | 1994-02-18 | 1994-05-19 |
80. | Indonesia | 1992-06-05 | 1994-08-23 | 1994-11-21 |
81. | Iran (Islamic Republic of) | 1992-06-14 | 1996-08-06 | 1996-11-04 |
82. | Iraqa | 2009-07-28 | 2009-10-26 | |
83. | Ireland | 1992-06-13 | 1996-03-22 | 1996-06-20 |
84. | Israel | 1992-06-11 | 1995-08-07 | 1995-11-05 |
85. | Italy | 1992-06-05 | 1994-04-15 | 1994-07-14 |
86. | Jamaica | 1992-06-11 | 1995-01-06 | 1995-04-06 |
87. | Japan | 1992-06-13 | 1993-05-28 | 1993-12-29 |
88. | Jordan | 1992-06-11 | 1993-11-12 | 1994-02-10 |
89. | Kazakhstan | 1992-06-09 | 1994-09-06 | 1994-12-05 |
90. | Kenya | 1992-06-11 | 1994-07-26 | 1994-10-24 |
91. | Kiribatia | 1994-08-16 | 1994-11-14 | |
92. | Kuwait | 1992-06-09 | 2002-08-02 | 2002-10-31 |
93. | Kyrgyzstan | 1996-08-06 | 1996-11-04 | |
94. | Lao People’s Democratic Republic | 1996-09-20 | 1996-12-19 | |
95. | Latvia | 1992-06-11 | 1995-12-14 | 1996-03-13 |
96. | Lebanon | 1992-06-12 | 1994-12-15 | 1995-03-15 |
97. | Lesotho | 1992-06-11 | 1995-01-10 | 1995-04-10 |
98. | Liberia | 1992-06-12 | 2000-11-08 | 2001-02-06 |
99. | Libya | 1992-06-29 | 2001-07-12 | 2001-10-10 |
100. | Liechtenstein | 1992-06-05 | 1997-11-19 | 1998-02-17 |
101. | Lithuania | 1992-06-11 | 1996-02-01 | 1996-05-01 |
102. | Luxembourg | 1992-06-09 | 1994-05-09 | 1994-08-07 |
103. | Madagascar | 1992-06-08 | 1996-03-04 | 1996-06-02 |
104. | Malawi | 1992-06-10 | 1994-02-02 | 1994-05-03 |
105. | Malaysia | 1992-06-12 | 1994-06-24 | 1994-09-22 |
106. | Maldives | 1992-06-12 | 1992-11-09 | 1993-12-29 |
107. | Mali | 1992-09-30 | 1995-03-29 | 1995-06-27 |
108. | Malta | 1992-06-12 | 2000-12-29 | 2001-03-29 |
109. | Marshall Islands | 1992-06-12 | 1992-10-08 | 1993-12-29 |
110. | Mauritania | 1992-06-12 | 1996-08-16 | 1996-11-14 |
111. | Mauritius | 1992-06-10 | 1992-09-04 | 1993-12-29 |
112. | Mexico | 1992-06-13 | 1993-03-11 | 1993-12-29 |
113. | Micronesia (Federated States of) | 1992-06-12 | 1994-06-20 | 1994-09-18 |
114. | Monacoa | 1992-06-11 | 1992-11-20 | 1993-12-29 |
115. | Mongolia | 1992-06-12 | 1993-09-30 | 1993-12-29 |
116. | Montenegro | 2006-10-23 | 2006-06-03 | |
117. | Morocco | 1992-06-13 | 1995-08-21 | 1995-11-19 |
118. | Mozambique | 1992-06-12 | 1995-08-25 | 1995-11-23 |
119. | Myanmar | 1992-06-11 | 1994-11-25 | 1995-02-23 |
120. | Namibia | 1992-06-12 | 1997-05-16 | 1997-08-14 |
121. | Naurua | 1992-06-05 | 1993-11-11 | 1994-02-08 |
122. | Nepal | 1992-06-12 | 1993-11-23 | 1994-02-21 |
123. | Netherlands | 1992-06-05 | 1994-07-12 | 1994-10-10 |
124. | New Zealand | 1992-06-12 | 1993-09-16 | 1993-12-29 |
125. | Nicaragua | 1992-06-13 | 1995-11-20 | 1996-02-18 |
126. | Niger | 1992-06-11 | 1995-07-25 | 1995-10-23 |
127. | Nigeria | 1992-06-13 | 1994-08-29 | 1994-11-27 |
128. | Niuea | 1996-02-28 | 1996-05-28 | |
129. | Norway | 1992-06-09 | 1993-07-09 | 1993-12-29 |
130. | Oman | 1992-06-10 | 1995-02-08 | 1995-05-09 |
131. | Pakistan | 1992-06-05 | 1994-07-26 | 1994-10-24 |
132. | Palau | 1999-01-06 | 1999-04-06 | |
133. | Panama | 1992-06-13 | 1995-01-17 | 1995-04-17 |
134. | Papua New Guinea | 1992-06-13 | 1993-03-16 | 1993-12-29 |
135. | Paraguay | 1992-06-12 | 1994-02-24 | 1994-05-25 |
136. | Peru | 1992-06-12 | 1993-06-07 | 1993-12-29 |
137. | Philippines | 1992-06-12 | 1993-10-08 | 1994-01-06 |
138. | Poland | 1992-06-05 | 1996-01-18 | 1996-04-17 |
139. | Portugal | 1992-06-13 | 1993-12-21 | 1994-03-21 |
140. | Qatar | 1992-06-11 | 1996-08-21 | 1996-11-19 |
141. | Republic of Korea | 1992-06-13 | 1994-10-03 | 1995-01-01 |
142. | Republic of Moldova | 1992-06-05 | 1995-10-20 | 1996-01-18 |
143. | Romaniaa | 1992-06-05 | 1994-08-17 | 1994-11-15 |
144. | Russian Federation | 1992-06-13 | 1995-04-05 | 1995-07-04 |
145. | Rwanda | 1992-06-10 | 1996-05-29 | 1996-08-27 |
146. | Saint Kitts and Nevisa | 1992-06-12 | 1993-01-07 | 1993-12-29 |
147. | Saint Luciaa | 1993-07-28 | 1993-12-29 | |
148. | Saint Vincent and the Grenadinesa | 1996-06-03 | 1996-09-01 | |
149. | Samoa | 1992-06-12 | 1994-02-09 | 1994-05-10 |
150. | San Marinoa | 1992-06-10 | 1994-10-28 | 1995-01-26 |
151. | Sao Tome and Principea | 1992-06-12 | 1999-09-29 | 1999-12-28 |
152. | Saudi Arabia | 2001-10-03 | 2002-01-01 | |
153. | Senegal | 1992-06-13 | 1994-10-17 | 1995-01-15 |
154. | Serbia | 1992-06-08 | 2002-03-01 | 2002-05-30 |
155. | Seychelles | 1992-06-10 | 1992-09-22 | 1993-12-29 |
156. | Sierra Leone | 1994-12-12 | 1995-03-12 | |
157. | Singapore | 1992-06-12 | 1995-12-21 | 1996-03-20 |
158. | Slovakia | 1993-05-19 | 1994-08-25 | 1994-11-23 |
159. | Slovenia | 1992-06-13 | 1996-07-09 | 1996-10-07 |
160. | Solomon Islands | 1992-06-13 | 1995-10-03 | 1996-01-01 |
161. | Somaliaa | 2009-09-11 | 2009-12-10 | |
162. | South Africa | 1993-06-04 | 1995-11-02 | 1996-01-31 |
163. | South Sudana | 2014-02-17 | 2014-05-18 | |
164. | Spain | 1992-06-13 | 1993-12-21 | 1994-03-21 |
165. | Sri Lanka | 1992-06-10 | 1994-03-23 | 1994-06-21 |
166. | State of Palestinea | 2015-01-02 | 2015-04-02 | |
167. | Sudan | 1992-06-09 | 1995-10-30 | 1996-01-28 |
168. | Suriname | 1992-06-13 | 1996-01-12 | 1996-04-11 |
169. | Swaziland | 1992-06-12 | 1994-11-09 | 1995-02-07 |
170. | Sweden | 1992-06-08 | 1993-12-16 | 1994-03-16 |
171. | Switzerland | 1992-06-12 | 1994-11-21 | 1995-02-19 |
172. | Syrian Arab Republic | 1993-05-03 | 1996-01-04 | 1996-04-03 |
173. | Tajikistan | 1997-10-29 | 1998-01-27 | |
174. | Thailand | 1992-06-12 | 2003-10-31 | 2004-01-29 |
175. | The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | 1997-12-02 | 1998-03-02 | |
176. | Timor-Lestea | 2006-10-10 | 2007-01-08 | |
177. | Togo | 1992-06-12 | 1995-10-04 | 1996-01-02 |
178. | Tonga | 1998-05-19 | 1998-08-17 | |
179. | Trinidad and Tobago | 1992-06-11 | 1996-08-01 | 1996-10-30 |
180. | Tunisia | 1992-06-13 | 1993-07-15 | 1993-12-29 |
181. | Turkey | 1992-06-11 | 1997-02-14 | 1997-05-15 |
182. | Turkmenistan | 1996-09-18 | 1996-12-17 | |
183. | Tuvalua | 1992-06-08 | 2002-12-20 | 2003-03-20 |
184. | Uganda | 1992-06-12 | 1993-09-08 | 1993-12-29 |
185. | Ukraine | 1992-06-11 | 1995-02-07 | 1995-05-08 |
186. | United Arab Emiratesa | 1992-06-11 | 2000-02-10 | 2000-05-10 |
187. | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | 1992-06-12 | 1994-06-03 | 1994-09-01 |
188. | United Republic of Tanzaniaa | 1992-06-12 | 1996-03-08 | 1996-06-06 |
189. | Uruguay | 1992-06-09 | 1993-11-05 | 1994-02-03 |
190. | Uzbekistan | 1995-07-19 | 1995-10-17 | |
191. | Vanuatu | 1992-06-09 | 1993-03-25 | 1993-12-29 |
192. | Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) | 1992-06-12 | 1994-09-13 | 1994-12-12 |
193. | Viet Nam | 1993-05-28 | 1994-11-16 | 1995-02-14 |
194. | Yemena | 1992-06-12 | 1996-02-21 | 1996-05-21 |
195. | Zambia | 1992-06-11 | 1993-05-28 | 1993-12-29 |
196. | Zimbabwe | 1992-06-12 | 1994-11-11 | 1995-02-09 |
Source: CBD (2022)
The ratification status include Ratification, Accession, Acceptance, Approval, and Succession based on the treaty state description of the CBD: “The legal incidents/implications of ratification, accession, approval, and acceptance are the same. The treaty becomes legally binding on the State or the regional economic integration organization” (CBD 2022)
aIndicates the parties that are not included in the analysis of this study due to data limitation
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Kim, Y., Tanaka, K. & Perrings, C. The Impact of International Conservation Agreements on Protected Areas: Empirical Findings from the Convention on Biological Diversity Using Causal Inference. Environmental Management 72, 203–218 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-023-01818-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-023-01818-9