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Seneca: A new German icon?

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Abstract

The scholarly revival accelerated by the 1965 celebrations commemorating Seneca's death in A.D. 65 was accompanied in Germany by a remarkable surge of literary interest in the Roman philosopher. This article, beginning with a mid-century example, surveys the stages of that interest and analyzes the reasons accounting respectively for each. A postwar generation of Christian humanists in West Germany focused on Seneca as a proto-Christian while a younger generation of Marxist writers in the East saw in him primarily the model for a life of freedom and dignity under tyranny. The most recent generation in a unified Germany shares with Seneca the radical ethical ecriticism of his society. Günter Grass's novelörtlich betäubt (1969), the most immediate response to the 1965 celebrations and anticipating the stage of ethica criticism, constitutes a shrewd analysis of the responses to Seneca in three generations of West Germans.

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Literatur

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  8. Anna Lydia Motto,Seneca, Twayne's world authors series 268 (New York, 1973), 7. For specific documentation see Anna Lydia Motto and John R. Clark,Seneca: A Critical Bibliography 1900–1980. Scholarship on His Life, Thought, Prose, and Influence (Amsterdam, 1989). To be supplemented by the bibliographies, research reports, and sample studies in:Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt/Rise and Decline of the Roman World (ANRW), Part II.Principat, vol. 32.2, ed. Wolfgang Haase (Berlin-New York, 1985), pp. 653–1453 (Seneca in general and Seneca tragicus) and Part II.Principat, vol. 36.3, ed. Wolfgang Haase (Berlin-New York, 1989), pp. 1545–2012 (Seneca philosophus).

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  12. Marc Rozelaar,Seneca. Eine Gesamtdarstellung (Amsterdam, 1976); and P. Grimal,Seneca. Macht und Ohnmacht des Geistes, trans. K. Abel, Impulse der Forschung 24 (Darmstadt, 1978).

  13. Gregor Maurach,Seneca. Leben und Werk (1991; 2nd enlarged ed. Darmstadt, 1996); Manfred Fuhrmann,Seneca und Kaiser Nero. Eine Biographie (Berlin, 1997); and Marion Giebel,Seneca, Rowohlts Monographien 1290 (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1997).

  14. L. Annaeus Seneca,Philosophische Schriften, 5 vols., ed. Manfred Rosenbach (Darmstadt 1995).

  15. For the following information I am indebted to Giebel,Seneca (see n. 14),Leben und Werk (1991; 2nd enlarged ed. Darmstadt, 1996);, 85, 137; Peter J. Davis,Shifting song: The chorus in Seneca's Tragedies, Altertumswissenschaftliche Texte und Studien 26 (Hildesheim, 1993), 5; Wilfried Stroh and Barbara Breitenberger, “Inszenierung Senecas,” in:Orchestra. Drama-Mythos-Bühne, ed. Anton Bierl and Peter von Möllendorff (Stuttgart, 1994), 250n.16; John G. Fitch, “Playing Seneca?” inSeneca in Performance, ed. George W. M. Harrison (London, 2000), 1–12; and Francesco Citti and Camillo Neri,Seneca nel Novecento. Sondaggi sulla fortuna di un “classico”, Ricerche/Centro studi La permanenza del classico 1 (Roma, 2001), 84, 107. I am also obliged for information to Amanda Wrigley of The Archive of Performances of Greek and Roman Drama (www.apgrd.ox.ac.uk), which hopes to publish a full online catalogue of all known productions of Seneca's dramas within the next (2004–2005) academic year. The APGRD has already publishedMedea in Performance, 1500–2000, ed. Edith Hall, Fiona Macintosh, and Oliver Taplin (Oxford, 2000), and is about to publishAgamemnon in Performance, 458 BC-2004 AD, ed. Fiona Macintosh, Pantelis Michelakis, Edith Hall, and Oliver Taplin (Oxford, 2005, forthcoming).

  16. Frederick Ahl,Seneca: Three Tragedies (Ithaca, NY, 1986), 26.

  17. See Wolf-Lüder Liebermann, “Die deutsche Literatur,” inDer Einfluss Senecas auf das europäische Drama, ed. Eckard Lefèvre (Darmstadt, 1978), 371–449; and Michael von Albrecht, “Momenti della presenza di Seneca nella letteratura tedesca,” inSeneca nella coscienza dell'Europa, ed. Ivano Dionigi (Milan, 1999), 262–98.

  18. Oswald Spengler,Der Untergang des Abendlandes (1918–22; rpt. München, 1963), 406–07.

  19. “Von den lateinischen Trauerspielen welche unter dem Namen des Seneca bekannt sind,” in G. E. Lessing,Werke, ed. Herbert G. Göpfert, vol. 4 (München, 1973), 58–141; also inWerke und Briefe in zwölf Bänden, ed. Wilfried Barner (Frankfurt am Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1985ff.), 3: 530–613. By the time he wrote hisLaokoon (1766) Lessing's attitude had become more critical; his notorious phrase—that Seneca's characters are “troublemakers in actors' boots” (“Klopffechter im Kothurne”)—determined the public attitude for decades to come. See Wilfried Barner,Produktive Rezeption. Lessing und die Tragödien Senecas (München, 1973); and Volker Riedel,Lessing und die römische Literatur (Weimar, 1976), 86–106.

  20. August Wilhelm Schlegel,Vorlesungen über dramatische Kunst und Literatur, erster Teil, inKritische Schriften und Briefe, ed. Edgar Lohner, vol. 5 (Stuttgart, 1966), 234: “Über alle Beschreibung schwülstig und frostig, ohne Natur in Charakter und Handlung, durch die widersinnigsten Unschicklichkeiten empörend und so von aller theatralischen Einsicht entblößt…”

  21. Liebermann, “Die deutsche Literatur” (see n. 18), inDer Einfluss Senecas auf das europäische Drama, ed. Eckard Lefèvre (Darmstadt, 1978), 371–449; and Michael von Albrecht, “Momenti della presenza di Seneca nella letteratura tedesca,” inSeneca nella coscienza dell'Europa, ed. Ivano Dionigi (Milan, 1999), 445.

  22. See the insightful discussions by the directors, Wilfired Stroh and Barbara Breitenberger, “Inszenierung Senecas” (see n. 16), inOrchestra. Drama-Mythos-Bühne, ed. Anton Bierl and Peter von Möllendorff (Stuttgart, 1994), 248–69; and by one of the actors, Katharina Volk, “Putting Andromacha on Stage: A Performer's Perspective,” in:Seneca in Performance (see n. 16)Sondaggi sulla fortuna di un “classico”, Ricerche/Centro studi La permanenza del classico 1 (Roma, 2001), 197–208.

  23. In his website dedicated to “Historical Fiction about Ancient Rome” Stefan Cramme lists over one hundred novels dealing with Nero (http://home.t-online.de/home/stefan.cramme).

  24. Cramme's website (see previous note) lists over eighty novels about Paul.

  25. “The Correspondence of Paul and Seneca,” inThe Apocryphal New Testament, trans. Montague Rhodes James (1924; rpt. Oxford, 1950), 480–84; also in Trillitzsch (see n. 12),Seneca in literarischen Urteil der Antike. Darstellung und Sammlung der Zeugnisse, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1971), 1: 170–85.

  26. See these and other references in Trillitzsch (see n. 12);Seneca im literarischen Urteil der Antike. Darstellung und Sammlung der Zeugnisse, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1971). here 2: 362.

  27. Henri de Montherlant, “Lecture de Sénèque,” in de Montherlant,Le Treizième César (Paris, 1970), 76–114.

  28. Chantal Labre, “Sénèque. Le mal sans nom,”magazine littéraire 400 (July–August 2001), 20–22.

  29. See von Albrecht, “Momenti” (see n. 18), della presenza di Seneca nella letteratura tedesca,” inSeneca nella coscienza dell'Europa, ed. Ivano Dionigi (Milan, 1999), 289–90.De brevitate vitae, one of the most popular and frequently cited Senecan essays in modern German writing, had recently been published in an edition by Hellfried Dahlmann with introduction, translation, and notes (München, 1949).

  30. Uwe Johnson,Jahrestage. Aus dem Leben von Gesine Cresspahl, 4 vols. (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), 306. See Ulrich Kinzel, “Seneca in Jericho,”Johnson-Jahrbuch 5 (1998): 144–66.

  31. Martin Walser,Nero läßt grüßen oder Selbstporträt des Künstlers als Kaiser. Ein Monodram. Alexander und Annette. Ein innerer Monolog (Eggingen, 1989), 27–28. Manfred Fuhrmann dedicated hisSeneca und Kaiser Nero (see n. 14)Leben und Werk (1991; 2nd enlarged ed. Darmstadt, 1996) to Walser, with a quotation from this play.

  32. Christa Wolf,Medea. Stimmen (Gütersloh, 1996), 11 (vv. 904–910), 95 (vv. 1026–27). On the widespread popularity of the Medea theme in modern German literature, and notably among feminist writers, seeMythos Medea, ed. Ludger Lütkehaus, Reclam Bd. 20006 (Leipzig, 2001), 259–88.

  33. In the most exhaustive treatment of the subject—Volker Riedel,Antikerezeption in der deutschen Literatur vom Renaissance-Humanismus bis zur Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 2000)—Seneca is mentioned only in connection with Peter Hacks (351) and Heiner Müller (359, 361). Citti/Neri,Seneca nel novecento (see n. 16),Sondaggi sulla fortuna di un “classico”, Ricerche/Centro studi La permanenza del classico 1 (Roma, 2001), 84, 107. is bibliographically useful and cites several other examples; but the work is all too often based on secondary studies with no first-hand reading of the texts mentioned; and since the material is arranged by genre and not by national literature, no sense emerges of the reasons for the reception from country to country or generation to generation.

  34. Theodore Ziolkowski,Virgil and the Moderns (Princeton, 1993).

  35. Theodore Ziolkowski, “The Odysseus Theme in Recent German Fiction,”Comparative Literature 15 (1962): 225–41.

  36. Theodore Ziolkowski,Ovid and the Moderns (Ithaca, NY, forthcoming).

  37. The work is quite rare in libraries. I refer to a copy of the 1959 acting text that was graciously provided to me by the copyright holder, Felix Bloch Erben. Verlag für Bühne, Film und Funk, Berlin.

  38. Under the titleRoyal Gambit the play has been widely performed in the United States.

  39. Paul Tillich,The Courage to Be (New Haven, 1952), 9–17.

  40. For that reason Hiebel has moved the time forward from the generally accepted date of A.D. 31 for Seneca's return from Egypt.

  41. Perhaps a paraphrase ofEp. Mor. 11.9–10?Ab hac diuina contemplatione abductum animum in sordida et humilia pertraximus.… Quicquid nobis bono futurum erat, deus et parens noster in proximo posuit.

  42. Hubertus Prinz zu Löwenstein,Abenteurer der Freiheit. Ein Lebensbericht (Frankfurt am Main, 1983), 9–10.

  43. Abenteurer der Freiheit, 27.

  44. Hubertus Prinz zu Löwenstein,Seneca. Kaiser ohne Purpur. Philosoph—Staatsmann—und Verschwörer (München, 1975), 409.

  45. Cited here according to theWerkausgabe in zehn Bänden, ed. Volker Neuhaus (Darmstadt, 1987), 4:6–264. For a survey of the critical reception in German seeBlech getrommelt. Günter Grass in der Kritik, ed. Heinz Ludwig Arnold (Göttingen, 1997), 110–20. The Anglo-American reception has been much more responsive; see the excellent early appreciation in Keith Miles,Günter Grass, ser. Vision critical studies (London, 1975), 172–98.

  46. Werner Rutz, “Stoa und Stahlbeton. Bemerkungen zur Seneca-Rezeption in Günter Grass' Romanörtlich betäubt,” Gymnasium 89 (1982), 122–34.

  47. “versteinerter Haß”; see my article “The Telltale Teeth: Psychodontia to Sociodontia,”Proceedings of the Modern Language Association 91 (1976), 9–22;rpt. in T.Z.,Varieties of Literary Thematics (Princeton, 1983), 3–33.

  48. The imaginary autobiography is constructed from elements of Starusch's actual experiences and his historical research into the career of General Ferdinand Schörner, who was commander-in-chief of the German military at the end of World War II and later punished for war crimes. At the end (263) we learn that Starusch is writing a work (his dissertation?) entitled “Die Geste des Durchhaltens—oder der Fall Schörner.” And the dentist discovers (245–46) that the Krings Works never existed, but that Starusch had been employed as a work-student for two summers in a different cement factory and had had there a brief affair with a dentist's daughter.

  49. Surprisingly, Seneca is rarely mentioned in the secondary studies. The two notable exceptions are Werner Rutz, “Stoa und Stahlbeton” (see n. 47) Bemerkungen zur Seneca-Rezeption in Günter Grass' Romanörtlich betäubt,” Gymnasium 89 (1982), 122–34. and Citti/Neri,Seneca nel novecento (see n. 16), 49–55, who document many of the passages.

  50. Ep. Mor. 71.36:instemus itaque et perseueremus (“Let us therefore remain constant and persevere”).

  51. On Grass and Marcuse see Michael hollington,Günter Grass: The Writer in a Pluralist Society, Critical Appraisals Series (London, 1980), 136–47.

  52. On Hübener seeWhen Truth Was Treason: German Youth against Hitler, compiled, trans. and ed. by Blair R. Holmes and Alan F. Keele (Urbana, IL, 1995).

  53. On Hacks's classical plays see Riedel,Antikerezeption (see n. 34),in der deutschen Literatur vom Renaissance-Humanismus bis zur Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 2000), 346–52.

  54. “Seneca-Essai,” in hisEssais (Leipzig, 1984), 354–65; here 354.

  55. Von Albrecht, “Momenti” (see n. 18), della presenza di Seneca nella letteratura tedesca,” inSeneca nella coscienza dell'Europa, ed. Ivano Dionigi (Milan, 1999), 290–95. The brief discussion of Hacks in Citti/Neri (see n. 16)Seneca nel Novecento. Sondaggi sulla fortuna di un “classico”, Ricerche/Centro studi La permanenza del classico 1 (Roma, 2001), 172–73, is based entirely on von Albrecht's article.

  56. I cite the text from Hacks,Ausgewählte Dramen 3, ed. Bernd Leistner (Berlin, 1981), 231–97.

  57. See Günter Hess, “Der Tod des Seneca. Ikonographie—Biographie—Tragödientheorie,”Jahrbuch der deutschen Schillergesellschaft 25 (1981), 196–208; esp. 226–27.

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  58. Von Albrecht, “Momenti” (see n. 18), della presenza di Seneca nella letteratura tedesca, inSeneca nella coscienza dell'Europa, ed. Ivano Dionigi (Milan, 1999), 291.

  59. In the famous analysis in chap. 4.A of Hegel'sPhenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807), the relationship between master and slave (Marx's proletariat) is inverted as the slave becomes conscious of his own creative originality and of the master's dependence on his labor; while the master loses the authority he had enjoyed only through the slave's respect.

  60. Riedel,Antikerezeption (see n. 34),in der deutschen Literatur vom Renaissance-Humanismus bis zur Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 2000), 352–62.

  61. I agree with Liebermann, “Die deutsche Literatur” (see n. 18), inDer Einfluss Senecas auf das europäische Drama, ed. eckard Lefèvre (Darmstadt, 1978), 443, who concludes that it would be sheer arbitrariness to see a connection between the modern theater and Seneca in the mere presence of such elements as demonization of the passions, sadism and aesthetic immoralism, and the disintegration of the dramatic form into separate scenes. “Der Traditionszusammenhang ist abgerissen oder bis zur Unkenntlichkeit verwässert.” But for a different view see Citti/Neri,Seneca nel novecento (see n. 16),Seneca nel Novecento. Sondaggi sulla fortuna di un “classico”, Ricerche/Centro studi La permanenza del classico 1 (Roma, 2001), 140n. 134, who assume that Medea's proud self-affirmation in Müller'sMedeamaterial is taken from Seneca, as are the words “O ich bin klug ich bin Medea ich” (from her famous wordsMedea fiam and laterMedea nunc sum). See Heiner Müller, “Medeamaterial,” inHerzstück, Texte 7 (Berlin, 1983), 91–101; here 98. (Wolfgang Haase has suggested plausibly that Medea's words here might arouse an ironic association with the comic aria from Albert Lortzing's popular operaZar und Zimmermann: “O ich bin klug und weise …”) For further context see also Marianne McDonald, “Theodoros Terzopoulos' Production of Heiner Müller'sMedeamaterial: Myth as Matter,” in: McDonald,Ancient Sun, Modern Light: Greek Drama on the Modern Stage (New York, 1992), 147–58.

  62. Heiner Müller,Die Gedichte, inWerke 1, ed. Frank Hörnigk (Frankfurt am Main, 1998), 250–51.

  63. Grünbein, while born in Dresden and educated in the GDR, has had his productive career mainly in a unified Germany. Only his first volume of poems,Grauzone morgens (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), appeared prior to unification.

  64. “Zwischen Antike und X,”Text+Kritik 153 (January 2002), 68–71.

  65. Durs Grünbein im Gespräch mit Heinz-Norbert Jocks, ser. Dialog: Literatur: Kunst (Köln, 2001), 45.

  66. See especiallyGalilei vermißt Dantes Hölle und bleibt an den Maßen hängen. Aufsätze 1989–1995 (Frankfurt am Main, 1996) andDas erste Jahr. Berliner Aufzeichnungen (Frankfurt am Main, 2001).

  67. On the translations see Klaus Völker, “Die Schrecken der Auflösung. Zu Durs Grünbeins Arbeiten für das Theater,” in the Grünbein-number ofText+Kritik (see n. 65) 153 (January 2002), 68–71.

  68. See Manfred Fuhrmann, “Zeitdiagnose am Widerpart Rom. Zu Grünbeins GedichtbandNach den Satiren,”Sprache im technischen Zeitalter 37/151 (1999), 276–85; Fuhrmann, “Juvenal— Barbier—Grünbein. Über den römischen Satiriker und zwei seiner tätigen Bewunderer,” and Hermann Korte, “Habemus poetam: Zum Konnex von Poesie und Wissen in Durs Grünbeins Gedichtsammlung ‘Nach den Satiren,’”Text+Kritik (see n. 65) 153 (January 2002), 68–71, 19–33, 60–67; and Michael von Albrecht, “Nach den Satiren: Durs Grünbein und die Antike,” in:Mythen in nachmythischer Zeit. Die Antike in der deutschsprachigen Literatur der Gegenwart, ed. Bernd Seidensticker and Martin Vöhler (Berlin, 2002), 101–14 = von Albrecht,Literatur als Brücke: Studien zur Rezeptionsgeschichte und Komparatistik, Spudasmata 90 (Hildesheim, 2003), 55–71.

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  69. Durs Grünbein, “Schlaflos in Rom. Versuch über den Satirendichter Juvenal,” in:Vorträge aus dem Warburg-Haus, vol. 5, ed. Wolfgang Kemp et al. (Berlin, 2001), 1–37.

  70. “Durs Grünbein im Gespräch mit Thomas Irmer,”Theater der Zeit, 2001, Heft 10; rpt. inSeneca. Thyestes, trans. Durs Grünbein. Mit Materialien zur Übersetzung und zu Leben und Werk Senecas, ed. Bernd Seidensticker (Frankfurt am Main 2002), 111–14, from which I quote.

  71. Das erste Jahr (see n. 63) in Werke 1, ed. Frank Hörnigk (Frankfurt am Main, 1998), 250–51. 122. Like his intellectual predecessor Gottfried Benn, Grünbein is fascinated by modern science and uses its images frequently and knowledgeably.

  72. Ibid.,Das erste Jahr, 223: “Was einen so müde macht an dieser Kultur, sind die sinnlosen kleinen Verschwendungen, die Routinen des Überflusses.”

  73. “Gespräch mit Thomas Irmer” (see. n. 71)Theater der Zeit, 2001, Heft 10: 111.

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  74. In the interview with Heinz-Norbert Jocks (see n. 66)Durs Grünbein im Gespräch mit Heinz-Norbert Jocks, ser. Dialog: Literatur: Kunst (Köln, 2001),he says: “Meine Wahrnehmung ist anthropologischer Natur. Ich schreibe am Epos des einzelnen Körpers. Er blüht auf, wandelt sich und zerfällt. Im Prinzip geht es mir immer nur darum, alle Metaphysik restlos in Körperphysik aufzulösen” (53).

  75. The first three poems originally appeared in the volumeErklärte Nacht (Frankfurt am Main, 2002); the last two were first published along with theThyestes translation (see n. 71) Durs Grünbein. Mit Materialien zur Übersetzung und zu Leben und Werk Senecas, ed. Bernd Seidensticker (Frankfurt am Main 2002), 167–76, from which I quote.

  76. The passage is clearly based onEp. Mor. 49.2:Quid enim non “modo” est, si recordaris? modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. (“What is not ‘just now’ when you are remembering? Just now I was sitting as a boy at the feet of the philosopher Sotion.”) The poem contains several other lines paraphrasing this epistle: e.g., 49.3:omnia in idem profundum cadunt (“Alles fällt in dieselbe Tiefe. Bodenlos, bodenlos”).

  77. Suetonius,Caligula 53.2.

  78. “Toreador der Tugend”; inGötzendämmerung (“Streifzüge eines Unzeitgemäßen,” §1),Werke (see n. 4) A Study in the History of Aesthetics,”Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (1951), 2: 991.

  79. The whole poem appears to be a variation onEp. Mor. 114.

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Once again I am happy to express my gratitude to Professor Wolfgang Haase for the thoughtful incisiveness with which he read my manuscript, and to him as well as the anonymous reader for useful bibliographical suggestions.

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Ziolkowski, T. Seneca: A new German icon?. Int class trad 11, 47–77 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02903163

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