Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A developmental approach to the origins of self-recognition in great apes

  • Published:
Human Evolution

Abstract

In this paper I present an hypothesis to explain the presence of mirror self-recognition (MSR) in great apes and human infants, and the absence of MSR in monkeys. This hypothesis is based on the following elements: 1) review of Gallupian studies of MSR in monkeys and apes; 2) review of Lewis & Brooks-Gunn's study for self-recognition in human infants; 3) application of the human model to comparative data on MSR in nonhuman primates; 4) discussion of cognitive correlates of MSR in human infants; 5) analysis of the cognitive correlates of MSR absence in monkeys, and MSR presence in apes; 6) comparative analysis of the modalities of occurrence of imitation and understanding of causality in monkeys and apes; and 7) a cladistic reconstruction of the evolution of MSR.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amsterdam B., 1972.Mirror self-image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology, 5: 297–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J.R., 1983.Responses to mirror image stimulation and assessment of self-recognition in mirror- and peer-reared stumptail macaques. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35B: 201–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J.R., 1984a.Monkeys with Mirrors: Some Questions for Primate Psychology. International Journal of Primatology, 5: 81–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J.R., 1984b.The Development of Self-Recognition: A Review. Development Psychobiology, 17(1): 35–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antinucci F., ed., 1989.Cognitive Structure and Development of Nonhuman Primates, New York: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antinucci F., Spinozzi G., Visalberghi E. &Volterra V., 1982.Cognitive Development in a Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata). Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Santa, 18(2): 177–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antinucci F. &Visalberghi E., 1986.Tool use in Cebus apella: A case study. International Journal of Primatology, 7: 349–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahrick L. &Watson J.S., 1985.Detection of intermodal proprioceptive-visual contingency as a potential basis of self-perception in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 21: 963–973.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Behnar, E, Carlton P., Samuel D., 1975.A search for mirror-image reinforcement and self-recognition in baboons. In: Contemporary primatology. S. Kondo, M. Kawai, & A. Ehara (Eds). Tokyo: Japan Science Press, pp: 202–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertenthal B.I. &Fischer K.W., 1978.Development of Self-Recognition in the Infant. Developmental Psychology, 14:44–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigelow A.E., 1981.The correspondence between self- and image movement as a cue to self-recognition for young children Journal of Genetic Psychology, 139:11–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boccia M.L., 1988.Mirror-Directed Behavior in Pigtail Macaques: A Test for Self-Recognition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Primatologists. June, New Orleans.

  • Boesch C. & Boesch H., 1990.Transmission of Aspects of Tool Use in Wild Chimpanzees. Wenner-Gren Foundation Symposium on Tool Use, Language, and Intelligence. Cascais, Portugal.

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1973.Facial Expression of Emotion in Nonhuman Primates. In: Darwin and Facial Expression. Paul Ekman (Ed.). N.Y.: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1976.Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. Annals of the N.Y. Academy of Sciences, 280:173–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1977.A Piagetian model for describing and comparing socialization in monkey, ape and human infants. In: S. Chevalier-Skolnikoff & F. Poirier (Eds). Primate Biosocial Development: Biological, social and ecological determinants. New York, pp: 159–187, Garland.

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1983.Sensorimotor Development in Orang-utans and Other Primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 12:545–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1982.A cognitive analysis of facial behavior in Old-World monkeys, apes and human beings. In: Primate Communication. C.T. Snowdon, C.H. Brown & M.R. Petersen (Eds). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., 1986.An exploration of the ongoveny of deception in human beings and nonhuman primates. In: Deception. R.W. Mitchell & N.S. Thompson (Eds) pp: 205–220. N.Y.: SUNY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon J.C., 1957.Development of Self-Recognition. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 91:251–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dore F.Y. &Dumas C., 1987.Psychology of Animal Cognition: Piagetian Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 102(2):219–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eglash A.R. &Snowdon C.T., 1983.Mirror-Image Responses in Pygmy Marmosets. American J. of Primatology, 5:211–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eibl-Eibesfeldt I., 1988.Human Ethology. N.Y.: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagen J. III, 1979.The Origin of Facial Pattern Recognition. In: M. Bornstein, & Wm Kessen (Eds) Psychological Development in Infancy pp: 83–114. N.Y.: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fouts R., Fouts D. &Van Cantfort T., 1989.The infant Loulis learns signs from cross-fostered chimpanzees pp: 293–306. In: Gardner, A., Gardner B & Van Cantfort, T. (Eds). Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees. N.Y.: SUNY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1970.Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science, 167:86–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1975.Towards an Operational Definition of Self-Awareness. In: Socioecology and Psychology of Primates. R. Tuttle (Ed.). The Hague: Mouton. pp. 309–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1977.Self-Recognition in Primates. American Psychologist, 32:329–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1979.Self-Recognition in Chimpanzees and Man: A Developmental and Comparative Perspective. In: The Child and Its Family M. Lewis and Rosenblum, (Ed.) N.Y.: Plenum. pp. 9–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1982.Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology, 2:237–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallup G.G., 1983.Toward a comparative psychology of mind. In: Animal Cognition and Behavior R.L. Mellgren (Ed.) pp: 473–510. N.Y.: North Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner B.T. &Gardner R.A., 1988.Prelinguistic development of children and chimpanzees. Human Evolution, 4(6):433–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson K.R., 1981.Comparative neuroontogeny, its implications for the development of human intelligence. In: Infancy and Epistemology Geo. Butterworth (Ed.), pp: 52–82. Brighton: Harvester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson K.R., 1990a.Tool Use, Imitation and Deception in a Captive Cebus Monkey. In «Language» and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes. pp: 205–218. S. Parker and K. Gibson (Eds). N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson K.R., 1990b.New Perspectives on Instincts and Intelligence: Brain Size and the Emergence of Hierarchical Mental Construction Skills In: «Language» and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes, pp: 97–128. S.T. Parker & K.R. Gibson (Eds). Cambridge University Press.

  • Greenfield P.M. &Savage-Rumbaugh S., 1990.Grammatical combination in Pan paniscus: Process of learning and invention in the the evolution and development of language. In: “Language” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes. S.T. Parker & K.R. Gibson, (Eds.) pp: 511–538. N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall K.R.L., 1962.Behaviour of monkeys towards mirror images. Nature, 196: 1258–1261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes C., 1951.Ape in our House. New York: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes K.J. &Hayes C., 1952.Imitation in a home-raised chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 45:450–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes K.J. & Hayes C., 1951.Imitation in a home-raised chompanzee. Film Pennsylvania State University, Psychological Film Register.

  • Hoyt M., 1941.Toto and I: A Gorilla in the House. N.Y.: J.B. Lippincott, Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes & Redshaw M., 1973.Psychological development of two infant gorillas: a preliminary report. Tenth Annual Report of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. pp: 34–40.

  • Itakura S., 1987.Use of a Mirror to Direct Their Responses in Japanese Monkeys (Macaca fuscata fuscata). Primates, 28:343–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson E., Campos J &Fischer K., 1978.The Question of Decalage Between Object Permanence and Person Permanence. Developmental Psychology, 14: 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye K., 1983.The Mental and Social Life of Babies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr M., 1989. Personal communication concerning the comforting behavior of Bwana toward his orphaned son Mkumbwa at the San Francisco Zoo.

  • Kluver H., 1933.Behavioral Mechanisms in Monkeys. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law L., Lock A. & Hay D., 1990.Self-recognition in gorillas. Paper prepared for Symposium on Gorilla Cognition and Communication at the 13th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists. Davis, CA.

  • Ledbetter D.H. &Basen J.A., 1982.Failure to Demonstrate Self-Recognition in Gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, 2:307–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lethmate J. &von Ducker G., 1973.Untersuchungen zum Selbsterkennen im Spiegel bei Orang-Utans and einigen anderen Affenarten. Z. Tierpsychol, 33:248–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis M., 1986.Origins of self-knowledge and individual differences in early self-recognition. In: A.G. Greenwald and J. Suls (Eds). Psychological perspective on the self. vol. 3: pp: 55–78: Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis M. &Brooks-Gunn J., 1979a.Social Cognition and the Acquisition of Self. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis M. & Brooks-Gunn J., 1979b.Toward a theory of social cognition: the development if self. In: Social interaction and Communication During Infancy. I. Uzgiris, ed Jossey-Bass. pp: 1–20.

  • Lin A.C., Bard K.A. & Anderson J.R. Development of self recognition in chimpanzees. Journal of Comparative Psychology (in press).

  • MacLean P.D., 1964.Mirror display in the squirrel monkey Saimiri sciureus. Science, 146:950–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathieu M. & Bergeron G., 1981.Piagetian assessment of cognitive development in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In: A.B. Chiarelli & R.S. cCorruccini (Eds.). Primate Behavior & Sociobiology. pp: 142–147. N.Y.: Springer-Verlag.

  • McDermott J., 1986.Face to face, It's the expression that bears the message. Smithsonian Magazine, March. pp: 113–123.

  • Meltzoff A.N., 1988a.Imitation, Objects, Tools, and the Rudiments of Language in Human Ontogeny. Human Evolution, 3(1–2)45–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff A.N., 1988b.The Human Infant as Homo Imitans. In: T.R. Zentall & B.G. Galef, Jr (Eds). Social Learning: Psychological and Biological Perspectives New York: Erlbaum. p: 319–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff A., &Moore M., 1977.Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198:75–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzel E. Jr., Savage-Rumbaugh S. &Lawson J., 1985.Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Spatial Problem Solving With the Use of Mirrors and Televised Equivalents of Mirrors. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 99(2):211–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles H.L., 1986.How can I tell a lie? Apes, Language and the problem of deception. In: Deception. Rbt. Mitchell and N. Thompson (Eds) pp: 245–265. N.Y.: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles H.L., 1990The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing oranutan. In: “Language” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes. S.T. Parker & K.R. Gibson, (Eds) pp: 511–538. Y.: Cambridge University Press.

  • Mitchell R.W., 1987.A comparative developmental approach to understanding imitation. In: P. Klopfer & P. Bateson (Eds).Perspectives in Ethology. vol 7. pp: 183–215. N.Y.: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell R.W.,Mental Models of Mirror-self-recognition: Two Theories. New Ideas in Psychology (in press).

  • Mitchell R.W., 1990.Deception in captive lowland gorillas. Paper delivered at the Annual Meetings of the American Society of Primatologists Davis, CA.

  • Oppenheimer J.R. &Oppenheimer E.C., 1973.Preliminary Observations of Cebus nigrivitatus (Primates: Cebidae) on the Venezuelan Llanos. Folia primatologica, 19:409–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker S.T., 1977.Piaget's Sensorimotor Series in an Infant Macaque: A Model for Comparing Unteretipe Behavior and Intelligence in Human and Nonhuman Primates. In: Primate Bio-Social Behavior. S. Chevalier-Skolnikoff and F. Poirier (Eds.) N.Y.: Garland. pp: 43–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker S.T., 1985.A Social-technological Model for the Evolution of Language.Current Anthropology, 26:617–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker S.T., 1990a.Gorillas and chimpanzees engage in contingent facial behaviors in front of mirrors that are like those of human infants judged to recognize themselves. Paper delivered at the Symposium on Gorilla Cognition and Communication at the 13th annual meeting of the American Society of Primatologists, Davis. CA.

  • Parker S.T., 1990b.Mirror-directed behaviors of gorillas at the San Francisco Zoo: evidence for selfrecognition. Videotape available through the Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center Library.

  • Parker S.T., 1990d.The origins of comparative developmental evolutionary studies of primate mantal abilitie. In: “Language” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes. S.T. Parker & K.R. Gibson, (Eds) pp: 3–63. N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker S.T., 1991.Evolved Mechanisms for Cognitive Construction: Imitation as a Learning and Teachingincentive Device; Circular Reactions as Self-teaching Devices, Presented at the 21st Annual Symposium of the Jean Piaget Society. Philadelphia, PA, May, 1991.

  • Parker S.T., &Poti' P., 1990.The role of innate motor patterns in ontogenetic and esperiential development of intelligent use of stick in cebus monkey.In: “Language” and Ingelligence in Monkeys and Apes: Developmental Perspectives, S.T. Parkers and K.R. Gibson (Eds.) pp: 219–245 N.Y. Cambridge University. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Passingham R., 1975.The brain and intelligence. Brain and Behav. Evolution, 11;1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson F., 1978.Conversations with a gorilla. The National Geographic Magazine. 154:438–465

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson F., 1984.Self-recognition by Gorilla gorilla gorilla. Gorilla, 7(2):2–3. Publication of the Gorilla Foundation. Woodside, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson F., 1990.mirror behavior and self-concept in the lowland gorilla. Videotape & paper given at the Symposium on Gorilla Gognition and Communication at the 13th Annual Meetings if the American Society of Primatologists. Davis CA.

  • Patterson F., Cohn R. & Mendel L., 1991.Self recognition and self-awareness in the lowland gorilla. Videotape & paper presented at the Conference on Self-Awareness in Monkeys, Apes & Humans. Sonoma State University. August 1991.

  • Patterson F. &Linden E., (1981)The Education of Koko. New York: Holth Rinehar and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget J., 1952.The Origins of Ingelligence in Children. N.Y.: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget J., 1954.The Construction of Reality in the Child. N.Y.: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget J., 1962.Play, Dreams and Imitation. N.Y.: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Platt M. & Thompson R., 1985.Mirror responses in a Japanese marcaque troop. Primates, 26-300-314.

  • Premack D. &Woodruff G., 1978.Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1:515–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Povinelli D.J., 1987.Monkeys, Apes, Mirrors and Minds: The Evolution of Self-Awareness in Primates. Human Evolution, 2(6)493–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Povinelli D.J., 1989.Failure fo find self-recognition in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in contrast to their use of mirror cues to discover hidden food. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 103: 121–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redshaw M., 1978.Cognitive Development in Human and Gorilla Infants. J. of Human Evolution, 7:133–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redican W., 1975.Facial expressions in non human primates. In: Primate Behavior. L. Rosenblum, Ed. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridley M, 1984.Classification and Evolution. N.Y.: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riviello C., Visalberghi E. & Blasett A., 1989.Individual differences toward a mirror by captive tupted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). m.s.

  • Russon A. & Galdikas B.Imitation in Ex-Captive Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Comparative Psychology (in press).

  • Sarich V., 1968.Immunological time scale for hominid evolution. Scine, 158: 1200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savage-Rumbaugh S., 1990. Personal communication concerning vocal imitation by Kanzi also shown in videotape at Wenner-Gren Conference on Tool Use, Intelligence, an Language, Cascai, Portugal.

  • Stern D., 1978.The First Relationship. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern D., 1985.The Interpersonal World of the Infant. New York: Basic Books

    Google Scholar 

  • Suarez S.D. &Gallup G.G., 1981.Self-Recognition in Chimpanzees and Orangutans, but not Gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution, 10:175–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson R.L., 1991.The problem of mirror-mediated self-recognition in apes and monkeys: New data and conjectures. Paper presented at the Conference on Self-Awareness in Monkeys, Apes & Humans. Sonoma State University. August 1991.

  • Tomasello M., 1990.Cultural transmission in the tool use and communicatory signaling of chimpanzees? In: “Language” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes: Developmental Perspectives. S.T. Parker and K.R. Gibson (Eds.) pp: 274–310. N.Y. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trevarthan C., 1979.Communication and cooperation in early infancy: a description of primary subjectivity. In: M. Bullowa (Ed). Before Speech N.Y. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uzgiris I. &Hunt J. McV, 1975.Assessment in Infancy: Ordinal Scales of Development Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Visalberghi E., 1990.Tool use in cebus. Folia primatologica in press.

  • Visalberghi E. &Fragaszy D., 1990.Do Monkeys Ape? In: “Languae” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes: Developmental Perspectives. S.T. Parker and K.R. Gibson (Eds.). pp: 247–272. N.Y. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal F., 1983.Chimpanzee Politics N.Y.: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson J.S., 1972.Smiling, Cooing, and “the Game”. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavioral Development, 16:323–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson J.S., 1984.Bases of Casual interference in Infancy: Time, Space, and Sensory Relations. In: Advances in Infancy Research. vol. 3 L. Lipsitt & Rovee-Collier, Eds. New York: Ablex. pp: 152–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson J.S., 1985.Contingency Perception in Early Social Development. In: Social Perception in Infants T.M. Field & N.A. Fox, Eds. Ablex. p: 157–176.

  • Watson J.S., 1991.Detection of Self: The Perfect algorithm. Paper presented at the Conference on Self-Awareness in Monkeys, Apes & Humans. Sonoma State University. August 1991.

  • Weiss M., 1987.Nucleic Acid Evidence Bearing on Hominoid Relationships. Yearbook of the American J. of Physical Anthropology, 30: 41–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetergaard C. &Fragaszy D., 1987.Lion-tailed macaques manufacture and use tools. American Journal of Primatology, 12:376. Abstract.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zihlman A., Cronin J., Cramer D. &Sarich V, 1978.Pygmy chimpanzee as a possible prototype for che common ancestor of human chimpanzees and gorillas. Nature, 275:744–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, 94928, Robnert Park, CA, U.S.A.

    S. T. Parker

Authors
  1. S. T. Parker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Parker, S.T. A developmental approach to the origins of self-recognition in great apes. Hum. Evol. 6, 435–449 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02435535

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02435535

Key words

Search

Navigation