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The War Crime of Child Soldier Recruitment pp 111–144Cite as

Special Court for Sierra Leone: The First Convictions

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Abstract

The turning point in the criminalisation of child recruitment occurred in Sierra Leone in 2004, with the first jurisprudential recognition of the existence of the crime. The Special Court for Sierra Leone was the first international tribunal to address the crime of child recruitment and thus provides a unique forum in which to examine the application and limits of the crime. There is now an emerging jurisprudence on the crime of child recruitment, and it was in Freetown where the first tenuous steps were made. The chapter examines the judgment in the first convictions for child soldier recruitment, Prosecutor v Brima, Kamara and Kanu (The AFRC Case) and the judgment and appeal in Prosecutor v Fofana and Kondewa (The CDF Case). The AFRC case represents the first occasion that an international tribunal was faced with this crime, thus representing a fascinating stage in its development, which reveals the full extent of its inherent challenges. The CDF case raises the critical issue of the place of culture—specifically on the weight to be attributed to tribal traditions—in the development of this crime. The issues and challenges faced by the tribunal in its deliberations are examined. Finally, the contribution that the Special Court has made in the development of the crime is assessed, notably its approach towards ascertaining the scope of ‘enlistment’ and ‘active participation’, as well as the appropriate standard of mens rea to be applied.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) SCSL-04-16-T.

  2. 2.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) SCSL-04-14-T.

  3. 3.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima (Indictment) SCSL-03-06-I-001-B (7 March 2003); Prosecutor v Brima Bazzy Kamara (Decision approving the indictment, the warrant of arrest, and order for non-disclosure) SCSL-03-10-I-002 (28 May 2003); Prosecutor v Santigie Borbor Kanu (Decision approving the indictment, the warrant of arrest, and order for transfer and detention, and order for non-public disclosure) SCSL-03-13-I-002 (16 September 2003).  

  4. 4.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Decision and order on Prosecution motions for joinder) SCSL-03-06-PT-088, SCSL-03-06-PT-088-II (28 January 2004).

  5. 5.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Indictment) SCSL-04-16-PT-006 (5 February 2004) [Hereafter ‘AFRC Indictment’] [65].

  6. 6.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Prosecution supplemental pre-trial brief pursuant to order to the Prosecution to file a supplemental pre-trial brief of 1 April 2004) SCSL-16-56 (21 April 2004) [182, 465, 748].

  7. 7.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) Transcript) SCSL-2004-16-T [Hereafter ‘AFRC Trial Transcript’] (7 March 2005) [40].

  8. 8.

    Ibid [25].

  9. 9.

    Ibid [26].

  10. 10.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (5 June 2005) [19]. Opening Statement by Mr Knoops, for Accused Kanu.

  11. 11.

    Ibid [19–20].

  12. 12.

    Ibid.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-16-T (20 July 2007) [362–363] [Hereafter ‘AFRC Trial Judgment’].

  15. 15.

    Ibid [364]. Article 4(c): Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces or groups or using them to participate actively in hostilities.

  16. 16.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Kamara Defence Final Brief), SCSL-16-603 (11 December 2006) [310]; (Kanu Defence Final Brief), SCSL-16-607 (8 January 2007) [75–80].

  17. 17.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [352].

  18. 18.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (22 July 2005) [56–57].

  19. 19.

    Ibid [67–82].

  20. 20.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (25 July 2005) [5].

  21. 21.

    Ibid [20].

  22. 22.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (22 July 2005) [62–63], [82]; (26 September 2005) [22].

  23. 23.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (25 July 2005) [4–5].

  24. 24.

    Ibid [5–17].

  25. 25.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (26 July 2005) [29].

  26. 26.

    Ibid [39].

  27. 27.

    Ibid.

  28. 28.

    Ibid [39–40].

  29. 29.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (15 September 2005) [67].

  30. 30.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (20 September 2005) [118].

  31. 31.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (15 September 2005) [65].

  32. 32.

    Ibid [66].

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Ibid [67].

  36. 36.

    Ibid [72].

  37. 37.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [734].

  38. 38.

    Sivakumara 2010, p. 1013.

  39. 39.

    Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 380.

  40. 40.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [274].

  41. 41.

    As discussed in the next chapter, the ICC was faced with the same problem, yet Judge Odio Benito argued that the Court ought to have defined the crime in a general way.

  42. 42.

    The Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman (Fourth Defence Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment), Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson) SCSL-04-14-AR72 (31 May 2004) [1] [Hereafter ‘Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson’].

  43. 43.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [734].

  44. 44.

    Ibid [1250].

  45. 45.

    Ibid [735].

  46. 46.

    Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 42 above) [9].

  47. 47.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, Commentary, 4557. <http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/COM/475-760003?OpenDocument> accessed 9 August 2011.

  48. 48.

    Smith 2004, p. 1148.

  49. 49.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [274].

  50. 50.

    Ibid [737].

  51. 51.

    Hitch 1990, p. 78.

  52. 52.

    Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 381.

  53. 53.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventionsof 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, Article 13(3) (entered into force 7 December 1978; accession by Sierra Leone on 21 October 1986).

  54. 54.

    Prosecutor v Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon and Augustine Gbao (“The RUF Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-15-T SCSL (2 March 2009) [1723] [Hereafter ‘RUF Trial Judgment’].

  55. 55.

    Ibid [514].

  56. 56.

    Amicus curiae brief of the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict submitted to the ICC in application of Rule 103 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, pursuant to the Decision Inviting Observations from the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations for Children and Armed Conflict, of Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Court (18 February 2008) 20–21.

  57. 57.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga (Trial Chamber Judgment) ICC-01/04-01/06-2842 (14 March 2012) [628] [Hereafter ‘Lubanga Trial Judgment’].

  58. 58.

    Ibid [729].

  59. 59.

    At p. 43 above.

  60. 60.

    Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 380.

  61. 61.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Sentencing Hearing Transcript) SCSL-04-16-T (16 July 2007) [60–61] [Hereafter ‘AFRC Sentencing Hearing Transcript’].

  62. 62.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Kanu Defence Final Brief) SCSL-16-607 (8 January 2007) [75].

  63. 63.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Exhibit D-37: Osman Gbla, (Research Report) ‘The Use of Child Soldiers in the Sierra Leone Conflict’) SCSL-04-16-T, (11 October 2006) [9].

  64. 64.

    Ibid [33–37].

  65. 65.

    Ibid [55].

  66. 66.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [731].

  67. 67.

    Ibid.

  68. 68.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (7 December 2006) [78].

  69. 69.

    AFRC Sentencing Hearing Transcript (n 61 above) [79].

  70. 70.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (7 December 2006) [78].

  71. 71.

    Ibid [78–79].

  72. 72.

    Ibid [80].

  73. 73.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [732].

  74. 74.

    AFRC Sentencing Hearing Transcript (n 61 above) [38].

  75. 75.

    Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 381.

  76. 76.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Brima Final Trial Brief), SCSL-16-595 (1 December 2006) [56–59]; (Kamara Defence Brief), SCSL-16-597 (1 December 2006) [47].

  77. 77.

    Prosecutor v Duško Tadic, (Appeal Judgment) ICTY-94-1-A, (15 July 1999) [104].

  78. 78.

    AFRC Trial Transcript (7 December 2006) [701].

  79. 79.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [85].

  80. 80.

    Ibid [67].

  81. 81.

    Ibid [61].

  82. 82.

    Ibid [68], citing Prosecutor v Radoslav Brđanin (Sixth Amended Indictment) IT-99-36-PT (9 December 2003), [27.1]; Prosecutor v Momčilo Krajišnik (Consolidated Amended Indictment) IT-00-39&40-PT (7 March 2002) [4]; Prosecutor v Milomir Stakić (Fourth Amended Indictment) IT-97-24-PT (10 April 2002) [26].

  83. 83.

    The Prosecutor v Milorad Krnojelac, (Third Krnojelac Decision on the Form of the Second Amended Indictment), IT-97-25-PT (11 May 2000) [16].

  84. 84.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [77].

  85. 85.

    Ibid [81].

  86. 86.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Decision and Order on Defence Preliminary Motion on Defects in the Form of the Indictment) SCSL-04-16-PT (1 April 2004) [52].

  87. 87.

    AFRC Indictment (n 5 above) [34].

  88. 88.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [71].

  89. 89.

    Ibid [72].

  90. 90.

    Prosecutor v Morris Kallon and Brima Bazzy Kamara (Decision on Challenge to Jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty) SCSL-2004-15 (13 March 2004) [54].

  91. 91.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [75–76].

  92. 92.

    Sassòli and Olson 2000, pp. 739–769; Badar 2006, pp. 293–302; Drumbl 2007, p. 25.

  93. 93.

    Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, p. 376.

  94. 94.

    Schabas 2007.

  95. 95.

    AFRC Sentencing Hearing Transcript (n 61 above) [17].

  96. 96.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Judgment Hearing Transcript) SCSL-04-16-T (20 June 2007) [14–15].

  97. 97.

    Ibid [31].

  98. 98.

    Ibid [15–15].

  99. 99.

    Ibid [24].

  100. 100.

    Ibid [22–23].

  101. 101.

    Ibid [25–26].

  102. 102.

    Hollett 2007. Rebels jailed for ‘heinous' crimes; Sierra Leone court gives trio 45–50 years for atrocities committed during brutal civil war. Toronto Star; Tran M (2007) Three found guilty in Sierra Leone war crimes trial. The Guardian, London; Human Rights Watch (2007) Sierra Leone: Landmark Convictions for Use of Child Soldiers. New York, 20 June 2007; United Nations News Centre, Rebel leaders found guilty in first verdicts from UN-backed court in Sierra Leone. New York, 20 June 2007.

  103. 103.

    Coomaraswamy R (2007) First convictions on recruitment and use of child soldiers. Statement by the Office of the Representative of the Secretary General for Children and Armed Conflict, 21 June 2007.

  104. 104.

    Roy-Macauley 2007. Special Court Convicts 3 of Sierra Leone War Crimes. The Washington Post (21 June 2007). http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/20/AR2007062000952.html?hpid=moreheadlines Accessed 21 March 2013.

  105. 105.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-14-T (2 August 2007) [119] [Hereafter CDF Trial Judgment].

  106. 106.

    Cruvellier 2009, p. 26.

  107. 107.

    Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norma, Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Indictment) SCSL-04-14-T (4 February 2004) [29].

  108. 108.

    Cockayne 2005, p. 460.

  109. 109.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [401, 409, 423, 474, 522, 565, 639, 655].

  110. 110.

    Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norma, Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Transcript of Witness TF2-079) SCSL-04-14-T (27 May 2005) [12–13] [Hereafter ‘CDF Trial Transcript’].

  111. 111.

    Ibid (Witness TF2-218) SCSL-04-14-T (7 June 2005) [16–17]; (Witness TF2-EW2) SCSL-04-14-T (16 June 2005) [15–19].

  112. 112.

    Ibid (Witness TF2-218) SCSL-04-14-T (7 June 2005) [32–33].

  113. 113.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105) [667–668].

  114. 114.

    CDF Trial Transcript (Witness TF2-011) (8 June 2005) [21–22].

  115. 115.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [105].

  116. 116.

    Ibid [186], citing Happold 2005, p. 55.

  117. 117.

    Ibid [189].

  118. 118.

    Ibid [190].

  119. 119.

    Ibid [192].

  120. 120.

    Ibid.

  121. 121.

    Draft Statute for the International Criminal Court, Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (14 April 1998) UN Doc. A/CONF.183/2/Add.1 21: ‘The words “using” and “participate” have been adopted in order to cover both direct participation in combat and also active participation in military activities linked to combat such as scouting, spying, sabotage and the use of children as decoys, couriers or at military checkpoints. It would not cover activities clearly unrelated to the hostilities such as food deliveries to an airbase or the use of domestic staff in an officer’s married accommodation. However, use of children in a direct support function such as acting as bearers to take supplies to the front line, or activities at the front line itself, would be included in the terminology.’

  122. 122.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [197].

  123. 123.

    Ibid.

  124. 124.

    Ibid [195–196] [Emphasis added].

  125. 125.

    Oosterveld and Marlow 2007, p. 853.

  126. 126.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 249 above) [314].

  127. 127.

    CDF Trial Transcript (27 January 2006) [91–95].

  128. 128.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105) [316]. Currency conversion correct as of September 2013.

  129. 129.

    Ibid [315].

  130. 130.

    Ibid [314].

  131. 131.

    Ibid [317].

  132. 132.

    CDF Trial Transcript (8 June 2005) [44].

  133. 133.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105) [317]; CDF Trial Transcript (18 February 2005) [7].

  134. 134.

    CDF Trial Transcript (10 February 2005) [43].

  135. 135.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [317]; CDF Trial Transcript (2 November 2004) [37–43].

  136. 136.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [969].

  137. 137.

    Ibid [667–668].

  138. 138.

    Ibid [670].

  139. 139.

    Ibid [671–672].

  140. 140.

    Ibid [669].

  141. 141.

    Ibid [685].

  142. 142.

    Ibid [684].

  143. 143.

    Ibid [674].

  144. 144.

    Ibid [675–676], [680].

  145. 145.

    Ibid [676].

  146. 146.

    Ibid [681].

  147. 147.

    Ibid [970].

  148. 148.

    Bennett 1998, p. 5.

  149. 149.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [970].

  150. 150.

    Ibid.

  151. 151.

    Ibid.

  152. 152.

    Ibid.

  153. 153.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Sentencing Judgment) SCSL-04-14-J (9 October 2007) [19].

  154. 154.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (Judgment—Separate Concurring and Partially Dissenting Opinion of Hon. Justice Bankole Thompson Filed Pursuant to Article 18 of the Statute) SCSL-04-14-T (2 August 2007) [66–71] [Hereafter ‘Opinion of Justice Bankole Thompson’]. This approach was strongly criticised by commentators, and seen as an unfortunate legacy of this trial, see Oosterveld and Marlow 2007, p. 856. See also: Human Rights Watch, ‘Political Considerations in Sentence Mitigation for Serious Violations of the Laws of War before International Criminal Tribunals’ (11 March 2008) http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/03/11/political-considerations-sentence-mitigation-serious-violations-laws-war-internation Accessed 8 March 2013.

  155. 155.

    Opinion of Justice Bankole Thompson (n 154 above) [1].

  156. 156.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (Judgment—Separate Opinion of Hon. Justice Itoe) SCSL-04-14-T (2 August 2007) [Hereafter ‘Opinion of Justice Itoe’] [25–26].

  157. 157.

    CDF Trial Transcript (Witness TF2-011) (8 May 2005) [16–17]; (Witness TF2-008) (23 November 2004) [56].

  158. 158.

    Opinion of Justice Itoe (n 156 above) [35].

  159. 159.

    Ibid [34].

  160. 160.

    Ibid [28].

  161. 161.

    Ibid [30].

  162. 162.

    Ibid [31].

  163. 163.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [969].

  164. 164.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Exhibit 100) [29-30].

  165. 165.

    Opinion of Justice Itoe (n 156 above) [58].

  166. 166.

    Ibid [80].

  167. 167.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105) [9].

  168. 168.

    Ibid [10].

  169. 169.

    Prosecutor v Sam Hinga Norman, Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Indictment) SCSL-03-14-I (5 February 2004) [4].

  170. 170.

    Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2178 UNTS 138; UN Doc. S/2002/246, appendix II, Article 6(3).

  171. 171.

    Prosecutor v Juvénal Kajelijeli (Judgment and Sentence) ICTR-98-44A-T (1 December 2003) [772].

  172. 172.

    Ibid [773].

  173. 173.

    CDF Trial Transcript (Witness TF2-011) (8 June 2005) [31]; (Witness Albert J. Nallo) SCSL-04-14-T (11 March 2005), [23–24]; (Witness TF2-008) SCSL-04-14-T (16 November 2004) [51].

  174. 174.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [345].

  175. 175.

    Ibid [370]; CDF Trial Transcript (Witness Sam Hinga Norman) SCSL-04-14-T (6 February 2006) [62–66].

  176. 176.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [123].

  177. 177.

    Ibid [140].

  178. 178.

    Ibid [958].

  179. 179.

    Ibid [960].

  180. 180.

    Ibid [964(i)].

  181. 181.

    Ibid [965].

  182. 182.

    Ibid [966].

  183. 183.

    Ibid [352].

  184. 184.

    Ibid [972].

  185. 185.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Appeal Judgment) SCSL-04-14-A (28 May 2008) [141] [Hereafter ‘CDF Appeal Judgment’].

  186. 186.

    Oosterveld 2009, pp. 109–110.

  187. 187.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Kondewa Appeal Brief) SCSL-14-811 (11 December 2007) [177–197].

  188. 188.

    CDF Appeal Judgment (n 185 above) [116].

  189. 189.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [139–140].

  190. 190.

    CDF Appeal Judgment (n 185 above) [144] [Emphasis added].

  191. 191.

    Ibid.

  192. 192.

    Rosen 2010, p. 111.

  193. 193.

    Sivakumara 2010, p. 1015.

  194. 194.

    CDF Appeal Judgment (n 185 above) [141].

  195. 195.

    Ibid [140].

  196. 196.

    Ibid [141].

  197. 197.

    Dissenting Opinion of Justice Robertson (n 42 above) [46]. [Emphasis added].

  198. 198.

    See Statute pages 140–142.

  199. 199.

    Sivakumara 2010, p. 1016.

  200. 200.

    The CDF Case (Appeal Judgment—Separate Opinion of Justice Renate Winter) SCSL-04-14-A (28 May 2008) 4 [Hereafter ‘Opinion of Justice Winter’].

  201. 201.

    Ibid [7].

  202. 202.

    Ibid [13].

  203. 203.

    Ibid [19]. Justice Winter went on to define looting as follows: ‘Looting is a term of art used by international courts to denote the appropriation of property for private purposes rather than military necessity. The Trial Chamber understood looting to refer to the appropriation of property for private purposes. This act of carrying loot, therefore, could not have constituted enlistment into an armed force or group or the use of a child to participate actively in hostilities because it was done for private purposes’.

  204. 204.

    Ibid [11].

  205. 205.

    Ibid [12].

  206. 206.

    Ibid [14].

  207. 207.

    Ibid [12].

  208. 208.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [282].

  209. 209.

    Opinion of Justice Winter (n 200 above) [21–24].

  210. 210.

    CDF Appeal Judgment (n 185 above) [129].

  211. 211.

    Ibid [133].

  212. 212.

    Opinion of Justice Winter (n 200 above) [34].

  213. 213.

    Villanueva Sainz-Pardo 2008, p. 581.

  214. 214.

    Oosterveld 2009, p. 107.

  215. 215.

    Sivakumara 2010, p. 1011.

  216. 216.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14) [733]; CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [139].

  217. 217.

    Smith 2004, p. 1152.

  218. 218.

    Ibid.

  219. 219.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [735]; CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [192].

  220. 220.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [966].

  221. 221.

    Ibid [352].

  222. 222.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 105 above) [193]; AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [736–737].

  223. 223.

    Opinion of Justice Itoe (n 156 above) [13].

  224. 224.

    UNICEF ‘Child recruitment by armed forces or armed groups’ (14 July 2011) http://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58007.html Accessed 22 March 2013.

  225. 225.

    AFRC Sentencing Hearing Transcript (n 61 above) [80].

  226. 226.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 14 above) [732].

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    Julie McBride

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McBride, J. (2014). Special Court for Sierra Leone: The First Convictions. In: The War Crime of Child Soldier Recruitment. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-921-4_4

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