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The Emergence of Personal Data Protection as a Fundamental Right of the EU pp 163–212Cite as

EU Fundamental Rights and Personal Data Protection

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Part of the book series: Law, Governance and Technology Series ((ISDP,volume 16))

Abstract

This chapter focuses on the construction of personal data protection as a fundamental right of the European Union (EU) by studying the surfacing of the notion of EU fundamental rights, and by exploring how could the right to the protection of personal appear among them. First, the chapter reviews the historical involvement of the EU in the field of fundamental rights protection, describing the sources of fundamental rights originally identified by the EU Court of Justice and later inscribed in EU law. Second, it proves the inexistence of a common constitutional approach among Member States in relation to the recognition of a right to the protection of personal data. Third, it reviews the appearance of personal data protection in the various tentative listings of fundamental rights produced by EU institutions up until 2000. Finally, it describes how the right came to be inscribed in Article 8 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU proclaimed in 2000, discussing also the major features of this recognition.

Mother came rushing in.

She said we didn’t see a thing.

We said we didn’t see a thing.

(Smog, 1999)

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Apart from provisions on the free movement of workers, and on equal pay between men and women, linked to the needs of economic integration (De Schutter 2010, p. 23). The Treaty of Rome, signed on 25 March 1957 and entered into force on 1 January 1958, included a reference to ‘peace and liberty’ in Recital 8: ‘Member States are resolved to preserve and strengthen peace and liberty’. The possible inclusion of provisions on rights had briefly surfaced in the early 1950s in discussions on the foundations of the upcoming organization, but was eventually put aside. See, on initial considerations: (De Búrca 2011). De Búrca notably refers to the role of Altiero Spinelli, who pointed out to the members of the Comité d’études pour la constitution européenne (CECE) the opportunity to give attention to ‘les droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales’ (‘human rights and fundamental freedoms’).

  2. 2.

    C-1/58 Stork & Cie. v High Authority [1959] ECR 43, Judgment of the Court of 4 February 1959.

  3. 3.

    On the supremacy of law, see, for instance: (Craig and De Búrca 2011, pp. 256–300).

  4. 4.

    On the difficulties of translating these notions: (Bellos 2011, pp. 229–233).

  5. 5.

    The Charter of the United Nations (UN), signed in San Francisco on 26 June 1945, refers for instance in its preamble to ‘fundamental human rights’ (‘We the peoples of the United Nations determined (…) to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights…’), and later in its provisions to ‘human rights’ and ‘fundamental freedoms’ (Article 1(3) and Article 55(c)).

  6. 6.

    A reference to ‘fundamental human rights’ is also present in the preamble, echoing the preamble of the UN Charter (‘Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women…’).

  7. 7.

    Article 8 of the UDHR.

  8. 8.

    Fundamental Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949. For an English translation, see: (“Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, Translated by Christian Tomuschat and David P. Currie, Translation Revised by Christian Tomuschat and Donald P. Kommers in Cooperation with the Language Service of the German Bundestag” 2010).

  9. 9.

    Article 1(3) of 1949 Fundamental Law. Note that Article 1(2) also refers to inviolable and inalienable Menschenrechten (‘human rights’) as constituting the basis of every community, of peace and of justice in the world.

  10. 10.

    Article 93 of 1949 Fundamental Law. See also: (Schneider 1979, p. 12).

  11. 11.

    Or Wesensgehalt; Article 19(2) of 1949 of Fundamental Law.

  12. 12.

    This idea of fundamental rights having an essential content was later incorporated into various European constitutional texts (De Domingo and Martínez-Pujalte 2011, p. 31).

  13. 13.

    Displacing other idioms such as ‘inviolable rights’ (Rodotà 2009, p. 32).

  14. 14.

    See also: (Moderne 2000, p. 57).

  15. 15.

    The expression droits fondamentaux is believed to have emerged around 1770 (Dreyer 2006, p. 2).

  16. 16.

    Erdem v Germany [2001] ECR 2001-VII, App. No 38321/97, § 65. In the original French version of the judgment: ‘la correspondance entre un détenu et son défenseur constitue un droit fondamental pour un individu’.

  17. 17.

    See also: (Picod 2000, p. 141; Walter 2007, p. 18).

  18. 18.

    C-29/69 Stauder v Stadt Ulm [1969] ECR 419, Judgment of the Court of 12 November 1969.

  19. 19.

    C-11/70 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft mbH v Einfuhr- und Vorratsstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] ECR 1125, Judgment of the Court of 17 December 1970.

  20. 20.

    C-4/73 Nold KG v Commission [1974] ECR 492, Judgment of the Court of 14 May 1974 (hereafter, ‘Nold II ’).

  21. 21.

    Nold II § 4.

  22. 22.

    Rechtserkenntnisquelle in German legal doctrine (Walter 2007, p. 12).

  23. 23.

    Decision No 69/71 EEC of the Commission of the European Communities, adopted in Dutch, French, German and Italian, the four official languages of the EC at that time (Horspool 2006, p. 166).

  24. 24.

    Opinion of Advocate General Roemer in C-29/69 Stauder [1969] ECR 419.

  25. 25.

    The English translation of the judgment uses the expression ‘fundamental human rights’, as an attempt to mirror the German original ‘Grundrechte der Person’ (translated in Dutch as ‘de fundamentele rechten van de mens’; in French, ‘les droits fondamentaux de la personne’, or, in Italian, ‘i diritti fondamentali della persona’).

  26. 26.

    Nold II § 4.

  27. 27.

    The German Federal Constitutional Court also found critical the lack of a viable legislative power (the ‘democratic deficit’ of the EC); see: BVerfGE 37, 271 2 BvL 52/71 Solange I-Beschluß.

  28. 28.

    Generally known as the Tindemans Report. See: (Commission of the European Communities 1975). Leo Tindemans had been instructed by the Paris Summit of 9 and 10 December 1974 to draw up a report on the interpretation of the term ‘European Union’.

  29. 29.

    Joint Declaration by the European Parliament, Council and the Commission concerning the protection of fundamental rights and the ECHR, Luxembourg, 5 April [1977] OJ C103/1.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    Emphasis added.

  32. 32.

    C-260/89 ERT v DEP [1991] ECR I-2925, Judgment of the Court of 18 June 1991, § 41.

  33. 33.

    In reference to C-5/88 Wachauf v Bundesamt für Ernährung und Forstwirtschaft [1989] ECR 2609 Judgment of the Court (Third Chamber) of 13 July 1989.

  34. 34.

    The ECJ first used the ECHR to obtain indications (C-36/75 Rutili v Ministre de l’intérieur [1975] ECR 1219, Judgment of the Court of 28 October 1975, § 32) and later granted to the ECHR a particular significance (C-46/87 Hoechst v Commission [1989] ECR 2919, Judgment of the Court of 21 September 1989, § 16).

  35. 35.

    C-136/79 National Panasonic v Commission [1980] ECR 2035, Judgment of the Court of 26 June 1980.

  36. 36.

    National Panasonic § 17.

  37. 37.

    Noting that whether the investigation had actually been ‘necessary in a democratic society’ was left unanswered: (Lawson 1994, p. 238).

  38. 38.

    Opinion of Advocate General Warner in C-136/79 National Panasonic.

  39. 39.

    C-31/59 Acciaeria e tubificio di Brescia v High Authority [1960] ECR 153, Judgment of the Court of 4 April 1960.

  40. 40.

    Opinion of Advocate General Warner in C-136/79, 2068.

  41. 41.

    In particular, Article 86 of the Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (Paris, 18 April 1951).

  42. 42.

    Brescia § 3.

  43. 43.

    C-46/87 Hoechst v Commission [1989] ECR 2919, Judgment of the Court of 21 September 1989.

  44. 44.

    Taken pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation No 17: First Regulation implementing Articles 85 and 86 of the Treaty [1962] OJ 13, 204.

  45. 45.

    Opinion of Advocate General Mischo in Joined Cases C-46/87 and C-227/88 Hoechst.

  46. 46.

    Ibid.

  47. 47.

    Hoechst § 17.

  48. 48.

    Ibid. § 18.

  49. 49.

    Ibid. § 19.

  50. 50.

    Chappell v the United Kingdom [2002] Series A No 152-A, App No 10461/83. See: (Rincón Eizaga 2008, p. 137).

  51. 51.

    In this series of cases, see also: Société Colas Est and others v France [2002] ECHR 2002-III, App. No 37971/97 (Mischo 2003, p. 141). On the question of the applicability of Article 8 of the ECHR to legal persons, see: (Briboisia and Van Drooghenbroeck 2009, p. 163).

  52. 52.

    Cf. C-168/91 Konstantinidis v Stadt Altensteig and Landratsamt Calw [1993] ECR I-01191, Judgment of the Court (Sixth Chamber) of 30 March 1993 (concerning a Greek man complaining about the way in which German authorities had transliterated his name, where the question was addressed in economic terms) and Burghartz v Switzerland [1994] Series A No 280-B, App No 16213/90 (on the right to a name as necessary to forming one’s identity). See: (Wetzel 2003, p. 2844).

  53. 53.

    See Chap. 4, Sect. 4.3, of this book.

  54. 54.

    C-369/98 Fisher [2000] ECR I-6751, Judgment of the Court (Fourth Chamber) of 14 September 2000, § 34.

  55. 55.

    For instance, in Joined Cases C-387/02, C-391/02 and C-403/02 Berlusconi and Others ([2005] I-3565 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 3 May 2005), where the Luxembourg Court found that ‘[t]he principle of the retroactive application of the more lenient penalty forms part of the constitutional traditions common to the Member States’ (§ 68).

  56. 56.

    Also: (Cremer 2011, p. 9).

  57. 57.

    For a complementary classification: (Arenas Ramiro 2006, p. 379). As a supplementary comparative analysis of constitutional protection in some Member States, see: (Koops et al. 2007).

  58. 58.

    Portugal could be included in this group, even if it Constitution does not explicitly refer to a right to the protection of personal data.

  59. 59.

    Spain could be regarded as pertaining to this group, except that the Spanish Constitutional Court has interpreted the legislative mandate of the Spanish Constitution in the sense that it enshrines a fundamental right to the protection of personal data.

  60. 60.

    See, for instance: (Silveira 2007).

  61. 61.

    Article 27(3) of Lei Constitucional 1/1982, de 30 de Setembro.

  62. 62.

    Ibid. Article 27(2).

  63. 63.

    Lei Constitucional 1/1989 [DR I série Nº.155/V/2 Supl.1989.07.08].

  64. 64.

    Article 20(4) of Lei Constitucional 1/1989.

  65. 65.

    Lei Constitucional 1/1997 [DR I série A Nº.218 1997.09.20].

  66. 66.

    Or for statistical purposes as mentioned above: Article 35(3) of Portuguese Constitution.

  67. 67.

    Article 35(7) of Portuguese Constitution.

  68. 68.

    The invention of the expression has been traced back to 1976 (Burkert 1999, p. 49).

  69. 69.

    Emphasis>Bundesverfassunsgericht (BVerfG).

  70. 70.

    Urteil des BVerfG v. 15.12.1983 zum VZG 83 (1 BVerfGE 65).

  71. 71.

    Mikrozensus-Urteil, 16.07.1969 (1 BVerfGE 27, Rn. 20).

  72. 72.

    See in particular the 1957 Elfes judgment (6 BVerfGE 32), where the German Federal Constitutional Court declared that the free development of personality must be broadly understood, and goes beyond the mere development within a central area of personality (Kommers 1997).

  73. 73.

    Hinted already in the 1957 Elfes judgment. In addition to this theory, and with the same objective, the German doctrine developed also the ‘theory of the roles’ (die Rollentheorie), the ‘theory of the autonomous self-representation’ (Die Theorie des autonomen Selbstdarstellung), and the ‘theory of communication’ (Die Kommunikationstheorie) (Arenas Ramiro 2006, p. 392).

  74. 74.

    They are also sometimes referred as specific liberties implied in the Fundamental Law (Rivers 2010, p. xli).

  75. 75.

    Section 4, paragraph 2, of the Constitution of the Land of North Rhine-Westphalia states that everyone has the right to protection of their personal data, and that infringements are permissible only on the basis of law where the public interest is paramount. Since then, various Länder have followed this path. The Constitution of Berlin, for instance, enshrines the right of individuals to decide on the disclosure and use of personal data (Article 33 of Berlin Constitution).

  76. 76.

    Article 10 of Dutch Constitution.

  77. 77.

    Finland undertook a major constitutional review in the mid-1990s, after accession to the ECHR, which led to the increase and broadening of recognised fundamental rights (Prakke and Kortmann 2004, p. 220). The provisions on fundamental rights contained in Chapter II of the new Constitution were reformed in 1995, and later transferred to the new Constitution.

  78. 78.

    Perustuslaki 731/1999 of 11 June 1999.

  79. 79.

    Unofficial translation of the Constitution of Finland of 11 June 1999 (731/1999, amendments up to 1112/2011 included) published by the Finnish Ministry of Justice <www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf> accessed 8 March 2013. Referring to it as establishing ‘data protection’: (Saarenpää 1997, p. 49).

  80. 80.

    Section 10 of Finnish Constitution.

  81. 81.

    In Spain, the status of fundamental right grants to rights a reinforced protection. Their exercise can only be regulated by law, which must, in any case, respect their essential content (Article 53(1) of the Spanish Constitution). They are also protected through the right of amparo, a constitutional guarantee in the form of judicial remedy.

  82. 82.

    Sentencia del Tribunal Constitucional (STC) 254/1993, de 20 de julio de 1993 (recurso de amparo núm. 1827/1990).

  83. 83.

    See notably: (Gómez Navajas 2005, p. 110; Guerrero Picó 2006, pp. 208–209; Piñar Mañas 2009, p. 95).

  84. 84.

    The STC 254/1993 was published a few months after the entry into force of the LORTAD, which was mentioned by the Court. See also: (Orti Vallejo 1994, p. 306).

  85. 85.

    STC 254/1993 § 5.

  86. 86.

    Ibid. It was the first time that the Constitutional Court used these expressions (Pérez Luño 2010, p. 387). After this conceptual digression, the Constitutional Court nonetheless proceeded with its reasoning by focusing on a possible infringement of the right to intimidad, now arguably understood as enriched by the prior considerations on its modernisation—as if hesitating between the assertion of a new right, and a broadening of the right to intimidad (Martínez Martínez 2004, 295)—, and ended up providing a very ambiguous judgment (Murillo de la Cueva 2009, p. 32).

  87. 87.

    STC 11/1998, de 13 de enero de 1998.

  88. 88.

    STC 11/1998 § 5 (Murillo de la Cueva 1999, p. 46). More precisely, it described Article 18(4) of the Spanish Constitution as establishing a right with a dual nature, both instrumental and autonomous (Solanes Corella and Cardona 2005, p. 27). Considering that this duality is not alien to fundamental rights, an that it increases their significance: (Murillo de la Cueva 1999, p. 47).

  89. 89.

    STC 11/1998 § 5.

  90. 90.

    STC 292/2000, de 30 de noviembre de 2000 del Tribunal Constitucional (recurso de inconstitucionalidad respecto de los arts. 21.1 y 24.1 y 2 de la Ley Orgánica 15/1999, de 13 de diciembre, de Protección de Datos de Carácter Personal).

  91. 91.

    STC 292/2000 § 8. Article 10(2) of the Spanish Constitution establishes a special interpretative regime for the fundamental rights it enshrines: it asserts the hermeneutical relevance of international treaties ratified by Spain for the interpretation of constitutionally protected rights and freedoms.

  92. 92.

    Adopted by the UN General Assembly resolution 45/95 of 14 December 1990.

  93. 93.

    With an argumentation very much indebted to the case law of the German Constitutional Federal Court in its judgment on the Census (Martínez Martínez 2004, p. 239), judgment which had been alluded to by the applicant.

  94. 94.

    The boundaries were described as corresponding to those of Convention 108, and of the case law of the ECtHR on Article 8 of the ECHR (STC 292/2000 § 9).

  95. 95.

    STC 292/2000 § 5.

  96. 96.

    The Defensor del Pueblo (the Spanish ombudsman), who had introduced the recurso de amparo, referred instead systematically to Article 18(4) of the Spanish Constitution as enshrining a derecho fundamental a la autodeterminación informativa (‘fundamental right to informational self-determination’) (STC 292/2000 § 2).

  97. 97.

    STC 292/2000 § 6.

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Ibid § 7.

  100. 100.

    STC 292/2000 § 5.

  101. 101.

    The current Greek Constitution was originally adopted in 1975, and has been revised since several times.

  102. 102.

    Article 9A of the Greek Constitution (Constitution of Greece translated by Xenophon Paparrigopoulos and Stavroula Vassilouni (Hellenic Parliament 2008).

  103. 103.

    Decreto Legislativo n. 196/2003, 30 giugno 2003, Codice in materia di protezione dei dati personali (GU n.174 del 29-7-2003– Suppl. Ordinario n. 123).

  104. 104.

    Article 1(1) of Decreto Legislativo n. 196/2003, titled ‘Diritto alla protezione dei dati personali’: ‘Chiunque ha diritto alla protezione dei dati personali che lo riguardano’.

  105. 105.

    Article 2(1) of Decreto Legislativo n. 196/2003: ‘Il presente testo unico, di seguito denominato “codice”, garantisce che il trattamento dei dati personali si svolga nel rispetto dei diritti e delle libertà fondamentali, nonché della dignità dell’interessato, con particolare riferimento alla riservatezza, all’identità personale e al diritto alla protezione dei dati personali’.

  106. 106.

    Already in 1977, a measure incorporated in the Civil Code in 1977 the declaration that the processing of data by computerised means shall not violate individual rights.

  107. 107.

    Article VI (2) of the Hungarian Constitution, adopted on 25 April 2011.

  108. 108.

    Article VI (3) Hungarian Constitution. This provision generated some criticism. See for instance: European Parliament Resolution of 5 July 2011 on the Revised Hungarian Constitution, 5 July 2011, P7_TA(2011)031, Strasbourg.

  109. 109.

    Article 19(1) of the 1992 Slovak Constitution.

  110. 110.

    Ibid. Article 19(2).

  111. 111.

    Ibid. Article 19(3).

  112. 112.

    Ibid. Article 22.

  113. 113.

    Adopted on 16 December 1992.

  114. 114.

    Resolution of the Presidium of the Czech National Council of 16 December 1992 on the declaration of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms as a part of the constitutional order of the Czech Republic, No. 2/1993 Coll.

  115. 115.

    Article 10(1) Czech Charter.

  116. 116.

    Ibid. Article 10(2).

  117. 117.

    Ibid. Article 10(3). In addition, Article 7(1) of the Czech Charter enshrines a right to integrity sometimes translated as right to ‘privacy’ (Pospíšil and Tichy 2010, p. 5), and Article 13 of the Czech Charter recognises the right to confidentiality of letters or the confidentiality of other papers or records, whether privately kept or sent by post or by some other means, as well as the right to confidentiality of communications.

  118. 118.

    Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania of 25 October 1992. For an English translation: <http://www3.lrs.lt/home/Konstitucija/Constitution.htm> accessed 20 March 2013.

  119. 119.

    Article 22 of the Constitution of Lithuania.

  120. 120.

    Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 April 1997. For an English translation, see: <http://www.kprm.gov.pl/english/97.htm> accessed 20 March 2013.

  121. 121.

    Article 47 of the Polish Constitution. See also: (Safjan 2001, p. 29).

  122. 122.

    Article 51 of the Polish Constitution.

  123. 123.

    Ibid. Article 51(1).

  124. 124.

    Ibid. Article 51(2).

  125. 125.

    Ibid. Article 51(3).

  126. 126.

    Ibid. Article 51(5).

  127. 127.

    Constitution of the Republic of Estonia, adopted on 28 June 1992 (Translation into English by the Estonian Translation and Legislative Support Centre (1996) <http://www.president.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/the-constitution/index.html> accessed 20 March 2013).

  128. 128.

    Article 26 of Constitution of Estonia.

  129. 129.

    As well as citizens of other states and stateless persons who are in Estonia, unless otherwise provided by law (paragraph 4 of Article 44 of the Estonian Constitution).

  130. 130.

    Third paragraph of Article 44 of the Estonian Constitution. Describing this provision as an element of Estonian constitutional ‘privacy framework’: (Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) and Privacy International (PI) 2007, p. 421).

  131. 131.

    See Article 1 of the Coordinated Text of Luxembourg’s Law of 2 August 2002 on the Protection of Persons with regard to the Processing of Personal Data modified by the Law of 31 July 2006, the Law of 22 December 2006, and the Law of 27 July 2007, which mirrors the wording of Article 1(1) of Directive 95/46/EC.

  132. 132.

    See also: (Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) and Privacy International (PI) 2007, p. 557).

  133. 133.

    Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria, adopted on 13 July 1991.

  134. 134.

    Article 32(1) Bulgarian Constitution.

  135. 135.

    Ibid. Article 32(2).

  136. 136.

    Bulgarian State Gazette No 1/4.1.2002.

  137. 137.

    Article 1(2) of the Personal Data Protetcion Act, which moreover evokes the free flow of personal data.

  138. 138.

    Ibid. Article 26.

  139. 139.

    Ibid. Article 26(1).

  140. 140.

    Ibid. Article 26(2).

  141. 141.

    See Article 1(1) of Romanian Law No. 677/2001 of 21 of November 2001 on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and the Free Movement of Such Data.

  142. 142.

    For an English translation of the Constitution of the Republic of Latvia (with amendments up to 8.4.2009), see: <http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/?lang=2&mid=8> accessed 20 March 2013.

  143. 143.

    Article 96 of the Latvian Constitution.

  144. 144.

    According to its first Article, the purpose of the law is to protect the fundamental human rights and freedoms of natural persons, in particular the inviolability of private life, regarding the processing of data of natural persons.

  145. 145.

    In particular, in 2004 to transpose Directive 95/46/EC.

  146. 146.

    Or, according to the English translation published by the CNIL, ‘information technology’ (Act N 78–17 Amended by the act of 6 August 2004 relating to the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data (last update: Ordinance No. 2011–1012 dated 24/08/2011) <http://www.cnil.fr/fileadmin/documents/en/Act78-17VA.pdf> accessed 20 March 2013). The document asserts that the CNIL decided not to translate the original titles of French institutions or procedures ‘when their translation may be misleading’, and presents as an instance of such potentially misleading titles the very name of the CNIL (ibid. ii).

  147. 147.

    Article 1 of French loi informatique et libertés: ‘(l’informatique) ne doit porter atteinte ni à l’identité humaine, ni aux droits de l’homme, ni à la vie privée, ni aux libertés individuelles ou publiques’.

  148. 148.

    Observing however that the French Conseil constitutionnel refers more and more often to the protection of personal data: (Desgens-Pasanau 2012, p. 7).

  149. 149.

    Section 1 of Sweden’s Personal Data Act of 1998 (Personuppgiftslagen, SFS 1998:204). See: (Bygrave 2002, p. 37). See also: (Korff 2002, p. 8).

  150. 150.

    The European Convention on Human Rights is directly applicable in Denmark, but it is not accorded special status (Korff 2002, p. 9).

  151. 151.

    Article 72 of the Danish Constitution stipulates that the confiscation and examination of letters and other papers, as well the interception of postal, telegraph and telephone communications, cannot be done without a judicial order (Prakke and Kortmann 2004, p. 163).

  152. 152.

    Compiled version of the Act on Processing of Personal Data Act No. 429 of 31 May 2000 as amended by Section 7 of Act No. 280 of 25 April 2001, Section 6 of Act No. 552 of 24 June 2005, Section 2 of Act No. 519 of 6 June 2007, Section 1 of Act No. 188 of 18 March 2009, Section 2 of Act No. 503 of 12 June 2009, Section 2 of Act No. 422 of 10 May 2011 and Section 1 of Act No. 1245 of 18 December 2012 (English version translated for the Danish Data Protection Agency: <http://www.datatilsynet.dk/english/the-act-on-processing-of-personal-data/read-the-act-on-processing-of-personal-data/compiled-version-of-the-act-on-processing-of-personal-data/> accessed 10 March 2013).

  153. 153.

    Committee on Institutional Affairs of the European Parliament, Working Document containing the “White Paper” on the state of fundamental rights in the European Community (Rapporteur: Mr K. de Gucht) PE 115.274, July 1987, 16.

  154. 154.

    Ibid.

  155. 155.

    European Parliament, Report drawn up on behalf of the Committee on Institutional Affairs concerning the substance of the preliminary draft Treaty establishing the European Union, Part B: Explanatory Statement, Document 1-575/83/B, 15.7.1983, 8.

  156. 156.

    European Parliament, Motion for a Resolution tabled by Mr Luster and Mr Pfennig jointly, Document 1-653/83/rev., 26.9.1983.

  157. 157.

    Chapter II of the draft Constitution.

  158. 158.

    Article 6, which read: ‘1. The inviolability of the home and the privacy of post and telecommunications shall be guaranteed. 2. Restrictions shall only be permissible by virtue of this constitution and the constitutions of the States of the Union’ (Document 1-653/83/rev., 14).

  159. 159.

    On 14 February 1984.

  160. 160.

    Article 4(1) of the 1984 draft Treaty establishing the European Union.

  161. 161.

    Ibid. Article 4(3).

  162. 162.

    On 26 July 1984, a motion for a resolution was tabled by Mr Luster and Mr Pfennig to supplement the draft Treaty establishing the European Union was referred to the Committee on Institutional Affairs.

  163. 163.

    In October 1984.

  164. 164.

    PE 115.274, 17.

  165. 165.

    PE 115.274.

  166. 166.

    Ibid. 223.

  167. 167.

    Report drawn up on behalf of the Committee on Institutional Affairs on the Declaration of Fundamental rights and freedoms (General rapporteur: Mr Karel De Gucht), PE 127.111/fin, 20.3.1989. The draft of the Declaration was prepared at a meeting in Knokke, where the rapporteur was assisted by Professors Meinhard Hilf (Universität Bielefeld), Joseph H. H. Weiler (University of Michigan, and Jean-Paul Jacqué (Université de Strasbourg) (ibid. 3), the later being particularly familiar with personal data protection, a subject on which he had published (see, for instance: (Jacqué 1980)).

  168. 168.

    Resolution of the European Parliament adopting the Declaration of fundamental rights and freedoms [1989] OJ C120/51.

  169. 169.

    Preamble, paragraph G.

  170. 170.

    Article 6 of the 1989 Declaration of fundamental rights and freedoms.

  171. 171.

    Ibid. Article 18.

  172. 172.

    Emphasis added.

  173. 173.

    Ibid. Article 11.

  174. 174.

    Resolution of the European Parliament on the Constitution of the European Union (Herman report) of 10.02.1994 (A3-0064/94) [1994] OJ C61/155. Work on this new draft had started in 1990. By letter of 23 January 1990, the Committee on Institutional Affairs had requested authorization to draw up a report on the European Constitution (European Parliament, Second Report of the Committee on Institutional Affairs on the Constitution of the European Union (Rapporteur: Mr Fernand Herman), A3-0064/94, PE 203.601, 9.2.1994, 3).

  175. 175.

    Ibid.

  176. 176.

    Article 6(c) of Title VIII: ‘Surveillance by public authorities of individuals and organizations may only take place if duly authorized by a competent judicial authority’ (1994 Resolution on the Constitution of the European Union, 166). See also: PE 203.601, 36.

  177. 177.

    Article 15 of Title VIII Resolution on the Constitution 1994.

  178. 178.

    Ibid. Article 9 of Title VIII.

  179. 179.

    The Corfu European Council of 24 and 25 June 1994.

  180. 180.

    Private Office of the General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, Note for the Reflection Group on the Principles and rights included in the constitutions of the Member States of the European Union, SN 512/95 (REFLEX 13), Brussels, 6.10.1995.

  181. 181.

    Ibid. 1.

  182. 182.

    Ibid. 3 (in reference to Austria, for instance).

  183. 183.

    Reflection Group, Reflection Group Report: A Strategy for Europe, DOC/95/8 (1995) paragraph 67.

  184. 184.

    Ibid 6.

  185. 185.

    The Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE Committee).

  186. 186.

    Annual Report of 2 December 1998 on respect for human rights in the European Union, PE 228.192/fin (1997) para 23. See also: (Coudray 2010, p. 296).

  187. 187.

    Community Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of Workers, 9 December 1989.

  188. 188.

    Article 286(1) of the EC Treaty.

  189. 189.

    Article 286(2) of the EC Treaty. See Chap. 5, Sect. 5.2.3.1, of this book.

  190. 190.

    At the meeting held in Copenhagen on 22 June 1993.

  191. 191.

    Code of Conduct (93/730/EC) of 6 December 1993, concerning public access to Council and Commission documents [1993] OJ L340/l.

  192. 192.

    Council Decision 93/731/EC of 20 December 1993 on public access to Council documents [1993] OJ L340/43.

  193. 193.

    Commission Decision of 8 February 1994 on public access to Commission documents (94/90/ECSC, EC, Euratom) [1994] OJ L46/58.

  194. 194.

    Article 4(1) of Council Decision 93/731/EC.

  195. 195.

    It also submitted a Working Document on the subject to the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference: (Swedish Ministry of Justice 1996b).

  196. 196.

    Emphasis added.

  197. 197.

    See: European Council Decision on the drawing up of a Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, in Annex IV to the Presidency Conclusions, 3 and 4 June 1999.

  198. 198.

    Paragraph 44 of European Council Presidency Conclusions of the Cologne European Council of 3 and 4 June 1999.

  199. 199.

    Together with the European Commission of Human Rights.

  200. 200.

    Resolution of the European Parliament on the establishment of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, of 16 September 1999 (B5-0110/1999) [1999] OJ C54/93 paragraph 3.

  201. 201.

    Resolution of the European Parliament of 16 March 2000 on respect for human rights in the European Union (1998–1999) (11350/1999–C5-0265/1999–1999/2001(INI)), A5-0050/2000 [2000] OJ C377/335 paragraph 7(a).

  202. 202.

    Ibid. paragraph 7(h).

  203. 203.

    The Cologne European Council had specified that ‘a draft of such a Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union should be elaborated by a body composed of representatives of the Heads of State and Government and of the President of the Commission as well as of members of the European Parliament and national parliaments’. In addition: ‘Representatives of the European Court of Justice should participate as observers. Representatives of the Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and social groups as well as experts should be invited to give their views. Secretariat services should be provided by the General Secretariat of the Council’ (see: European Council, Presidency Conclusions of the Cologne European Council of 3 and 4 June 1999, and in particular ‘Annex IV: European Council Decision on the Drawing Up of a Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union’).

  204. 204.

    Concretely, there were: fifteen representatives of the Heads of State and Government, 30 representatives of the national parliaments, sixteen representatives of the European Parliament, and one representative of the Commission.

  205. 205.

    On 15 and 16 October in Tampere, Finland, the European Council laid down the exact composition and working methods of the body responsible for drawing up the draft Charter.

  206. 206.

    During its first meeting on 17 December 1999.

  207. 207.

    Participating with the status of member of the Convention Bureau.

  208. 208.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1.4, of this book.

  209. 209.

    Article 18(4) Spanish Constitution. See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3, of this book.

  210. 210.

    Describing the presence of Braibant and Rodotà as favourable for the recognition of a right to the protection of personal data: (Coudray 2010, p. 297).

  211. 211.

    On the strategic position of Rodotà, see also: (Article 29 Data Protection Working Party 2002, p. 23).

  212. 212.

    European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies, ‘Citizens rights and new technologies: Report of the on the Charter on Fundamental Rights related to technological innovation requested by President Prodi on February 3, 2000’, 23.5.2000, Brussels, reproduced in: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, CHARTE 4370/00 CONTRIB 233, Brussels, 15.6.2000.

  213. 213.

    The proposed Article read: ‘15.1. Everyone has the right to protection for their personal data. 15.2. In the field of data protection, the following principles in particular must be respected: —respect for confidentiality of personal individual data;—right to determine which of one’s own data are processed, by whom and for what purposes;—right to have access to one’s own data and to correct or delete them. 15.3. No person shall be subject to surveillance technologies, which aim at or result in the violation of their rights or liberties’ (CHARTE 4370/00 CONTRIB 233, 26).

  214. 214.

    Cover Note: Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, CHARTE 4102/00, CONTRIB 2 (OR. Fr.), Brussels, 6.1.2000.

  215. 215.

    Article 6, preceding an Article 7 on privacy.

  216. 216.

    Ibid. 4.

  217. 217.

    Presidency Note: Subject: Draft list of fundamental rights, CHARTE 4112/2/00 REV 2, BODY 4 (Or. f.) Brussels, 27.1.2000.

  218. 218.

    A construction influenced by, according to the document, the 1989 Declaration of the European Parliament, and Article 8 of the ECHR (ibid. 5). The French version, which is the official original, alludes to a right to respect de la vie privée that would include a right to intimité. The German mentions a Achtung des Privatlebens that would include a Recht auf Privatsphäre.

  219. 219.

    A construction influenced by, according to the document, the 1989 Declaration of the European Parliament, and Article 286 of the EC Treaty (ibid. 4).

  220. 220.

    Numbered Article 15.

  221. 221.

    Note from the Praesidium, Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union—Proposed Articles (Articles 10–19), CHARTE 4137/00, CONVENT 8 (OR. fr), Brussels, 24.2.2000.

  222. 222.

    Ibid. 5.

  223. 223.

    Ibid. In the French original: ‘(e)n tout état de cause, la protection des données est un élément du respect de la vie privée’.

  224. 224.

    CHARTE 4137/00, CONVENT 8, 5.

  225. 225.

    Ibid.

  226. 226.

    Renumbered as Article 19.

  227. 227.

    Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union – New proposal for Articles 1–30 (Civil and political rights and citizens’ rights), CHARTE 4284/00, CONVENT 28(OR. fr), Brussels, 5.5.2000, 19.

  228. 228.

    Ibid. The English translation also uses the word privacy in the Article corresponding to the right to respect for private life: ‘Article 12. Respect for private life: Everyone has the right to respect for his privacy, his honour and his reputation, his home and the confidentiality of his correspondence and communications’ (ibid. 13).

  229. 229.

    Praesidium Note, Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union—Amendments submitted by the members of the Convention regarding civil and political rights and citizens’ rights (Reference document: CHARTE 4284/00 CONVENT 28 (REV 1 in French only), (OR. multilingual), CHARTE 4332/00, CONVENT 35, Brussels, 25.5.2000 (see, in particular, 448). A German member was concerned with the use, in the German drafts distributed, of the word Privatleben; he and other German-speaking members supported that the word be replaced with Privatsphäre, regarded as having a broader meaning (ibid. 281); see also, in this sense, Amendment 216 introduced by Jürgen Gnauck (ibid. 284). Although initial drafts referred to a right to privacy, the term was eventually changed into ‘respect for private life’, to enhance coherence with the ECHR (see draft amendments to document CHARTE 4149/00 CONVENT 13 by Lord Goldsmith, QC, Personal Representative of the Government of the United Kingdom: Cover Note on Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, CHARTE 4179/00, CONTRIB 62, Brussels, 28.3.2000).

  230. 230.

    Lawyer, senator and former Justice Minister.

  231. 231.

    CHARTE 4332/00, CONVENT 35, 288.

  232. 232.

    Professor of political science.

  233. 233.

    Ibid. 447.

  234. 234.

    Such as Amendments 371 (ibid. 456), 372 (ibid. 462), 374 (ibid. 464), 376 (ibid. 466), or 378 (ibid. 468).

  235. 235.

    Such as Amendments 360 (ibid. 450), 362 (ibid. 452), 363 (ibid. 453), or 377 (ibid. 467). See also, on the amendments proposed: (Bernsdorff 2003, p. 159).

  236. 236.

    Amendment 373 (CHARTE 4332/00, CONVENT 35, 463).

  237. 237.

    Presidency Note: Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union—Complete text of the Charter proposed by the Praesidium, CHARTE 4422/00, CONVENT 45 (OR. Fr), Brussels, 28.7.2000, 4. By then, the English translation of the provision of the right to respect for private life had also been amended (ibid.).

  238. 238.

    Presidency Note, Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union—Text of the explanations relating to the complete text of the Charter as set out in CHARTE 4422/00 CONVENT 45, CHARTE 4423/00, CONVENT 46 (OR. Fr.), Brussels, 31.7.2000.

  239. 239.

    Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2000] OJ C364/1.

  240. 240.

    Ibid.

  241. 241.

    Linking this sentence with the protection of personal data in Article 8 of the EU Charter: (Rodotà 2010, p. 57).

  242. 242.

    This choice has been described as illustrating a ‘laic’ tendency to detach private life from the notion of dignity: (Battista Petti 2006, p. 245).

  243. 243.

    Comparing the Charter to the ECHR and its additional protocols, some have found seven new rights: the dignity of the human person, the integrity of the human person, freedom of research, the right to asylum, the protection of aliens, the protection of children, and the protection of personal data (Loncle 2002, p. 45). See also: (Ehlers 2007b, p. 382). Arguing that innovations were limited: (Amato and Ziller 2007, p. 20). See also: (Brosig 2006, p. 20).

  244. 244.

    See, for instance: Klass and others v Germany [1978] Series A no 28, App. No 5029/71.

  245. 245.

    See, on the principle of proportionality and EU law: (De Búrca 1993).

  246. 246.

    Article 37 of the EU Charter.

  247. 247.

    The Secretariat was ensured by the General Secretariat of the Council, headed by Jean-Paul Jacqué, of the Council Legal Service (Piris 2010, p. 148).

  248. 248.

    Note from the Praesidium: Subject: Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union—Text of the explanations relating to the complete text of the Charter as set out in CHARTE 4487/00 CONVENT 50, CHARTE 4473/00 CONVENT 49 (OR. fr) Brussels, 11.10.2000.

  249. 249.

    Ibid. 10.

  250. 250.

    Ibid. 11.

  251. 251.

    See, notably: (Siemen 2006, p. 283).

  252. 252.

    Article 8(2) of Charter.

  253. 253.

    Ibid.

  254. 254.

    Ibid. Article 8(3).

  255. 255.

    Ibid. Article 8(2).

  256. 256.

    Referring instead to four principles, concretely: a scope of application covering all personal data (and thus differing from the sole application to ‘sensitive’ data), subjective rights, certain limitations imposed on those processing data, and the existence of a data protection authority: (Poullet 2006, p. 216; Büllesbach et al. 2010, p. 3). Se also, referring to three principles: (Poullet 2010).

  257. 257.

    Fair processing in Article 6(1)(a) of Directive 95/46/EC; purpose specification in Article 6(1)(b); legitimate basis in Article 7; right of access in Article 12(a); right of rectification in Article 12(b), independent supervision in Article 28.

  258. 258.

    Fair processing in Article 5(a) of Convention 108; purpose specification in its Article 5(b); right of access in Article 8(b); right of rectification in Article 8(c). The requirement of supervision by an independent authority was integrated in 2001 into the Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, regarding supervisory authorities and transborder data flows (CETS No.: 181). Arguing that there are in Article 8 of the Charter elements of all the instruments mentioned in the Explanations: (Rey Martínez 2009, p. 333).

  259. 259.

    See Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1.3, of this book.

  260. 260.

    Which merely uses once the words ‘personal data protection’, referring to a ‘personal data protection official’ (Article 18(2) of Directive 95/46/EC).

  261. 261.

    There is nonetheless a reference to the ‘protection of personal data’ in relation to security obligations (Article 7 of Convention 108).

  262. 262.

    Already present in the OECD Guidelines: Lignes directrices régissant la protection de la vie privée et les flux transfrontières de données de caractère personnel.

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    Gloria González Fuster

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González Fuster, G. (2014). EU Fundamental Rights and Personal Data Protection. In: The Emergence of Personal Data Protection as a Fundamental Right of the EU. Law, Governance and Technology Series(), vol 16. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05023-2_6

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