Abstract
Throughout the last 200 years, private law has been connected to national sovereignty, and there were times when legal scholars were eager to point out the particular national brand of their respective system of private law and its content as a kind of national heritage (Cf. Legrand, Pierre. 1999. Fragments on Law-as-Culture, 77 and 104. Deventer: Tjeenk Willink; idem. 1998. Counterpoint: Law is also Culture. In The Unification of International Commercial Law, ed. Franco Ferrari, 245 and 250 et sEq. Baden-Baden: Nomos; Samuel, Geoffrey. 2000. English Private Law in the Context of the Codes. In The Harmonisation of European Private Law, eds. Marc van Hoecke and François Ost, 47 et sEq. Oxford/Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing.). If that link can be considered as a correct assessment at all, it is limited to a fairly recent period of legal history. Roman law, as enshrined in the corpus iuris civilis was authored by jurists from various parts of the Empire. In the Middle Ages the ius commune was regarded, in many parts of Europe, as a subsidiary source of law supplementing the local statutes and customs, or at least as a common reference which provided guidance for the framing of legal concepts and classifications and has served as a platform of understanding for legal scholars across the continent (Nève, Paul. 1997. (Europäisches) ius commune und (nationales) gemeines Recht: Verwechslung von Begriffen?. In Festschrift für Karl Kroeschell zum 70. Geburtstag, eds. Gerhard Köbler and Hermann Nehlsen, 871 et sEq. München: Beck.).
In the twentieth century the sceptical view that “commercial law is not folklore” (Lando, Ole. 1978. Unfair Contract Clauses and a European Uniform Commercial Code. In New Perspectives for a Common Law of Europe, ed. Mauro Cappelletti, 267 at 285. Leiden/London/Boston: Sijthoff.) has gained ground. It has been underpinned by a series of further developments. Various countries have adopted foreign codes although there was little cultural proximity between them and the country of origin. Thus, the Turkish Republic took over the Swiss Code of Obligations, while Japan, Russia, China and Korea looked to the German Civil Code as a model. The impact of the French Civil code in large parts of Latin America is well known. Moreover, ever since the late nineteenth century, a strong need for the cross-border unification of private law has brought about numerous international conventions in the fields of intellectual property, the law of transport, maritime law, civil aviation, payment and securities, and the sale of goods. The globalization of the late twentieth century, the opening of markets and worldwide communication have further strengthened the belief of the international community of both governments and business circles that the national character of private law, instead of reflecting the particular character of a country, is rather a barrier to global trade and welfare.
The European integration has given further momentum to this development. An initiative of European academics started in the 1980s has grown into a broad movement and has turned comparative law from theoretical analysis into an inspiration of legislation. In October 2011 the European Commission formally submitted a proposal for a Common European Sales Law, as will be outlined in Sect. 3 of this paper. For a better understanding, it is however necessary to first take a look at the legislative bases and types of Union legislation, below 2. Some concluding remarks will speculate on what this could mean for third countries, e.g. in Asia, see below 4.
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- 1.
The former member of the European Commission Martin Bangemann wrote in 1994: “The European treaties draw narrow limits to the possibility to create a consistent and comprehensive European private law. There is no provision in the Treaty that would empower the European Union to the unification of private law which would however be indispensible for an initiative of the European Union in accordance with the principle of conferral.”, see Bangemann, Martin. 1994. Privatrechtsangleichung in der Europäischen Union. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 377, 378 (my translation, J.B.).
- 2.
ECJ 10 April 1984, case 14/83 (Sabine von Colson and Elisabeth Kamann v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen), [1984] E.C.R. 1891 cons. 26.
- 3.
Council Directive (93/13/EEC) of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts, OJ 1993 L 95/29.
- 4.
As to a comparative survey in respect of the current state of implementation of Directive 93/13 see Basedow, Jürgen. 2007. Vorbemerkung zu § 305 BGB. In Münchener Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch, 5th ed., eds. Kurt Rebmann, Roland Rixecker and Franz Jürgen Säcker, par. 22–49. Munich: Beck.
- 5.
Regulation (EC) No. 40/94 of 20 December 1993 on the Community trade mark, OJ 1994 L 11/1; the regulation has been replaced by Regulation (EC) No. 207/2009 of 26 February 2009, OJ 2009 L 78/1.
- 6.
Regulation (EC) No. 2157/2001 of 8 October 2001 on the Statute for a European company (SE), OJ 2001 L 294/1.
- 7.
See the strategy paper drafted by the former Commissioner Mario Monti, A new strategy for the single market—At the service of Europe’s economy and society. Report to the President of the European Commission José Manuel Barroso, 9.5.2010, p. 93 (availabe at http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/pdf/monti_report_final_10_05_2010_en.pdf ); see also the opinion issued by the Economic and Social Committee, The 28th Modell—an alternative allowing less lawmaking at Community level, Doc. INT/499—CESE 758/2010 of 27 May 2010.
- 8.
See e.g. Regulation (EC) No 261/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 establishing common rules on compensation and assistance to passengers in the event of denied boarding and of cancellation or long delay of flights, and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 295/91, OJ 2004 L 46/1, based upon Articles 91 and 100 TFEU.
- 9.
See e.g. Commission Regulation (EC) No 2790/1999 of 22 December 1999 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices, OJ 1999 L 336/21, based on Article 103 TFEU.
- 10.
See e.g. Council Directive (2000/78/EC) of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, OJ 2000 L 303/16.
- 11.
Directive 2010/41/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged in an activity in a self-employed capacity and repealing Council Directive 86/613/EEC, OJ 2010 L 180/1.
- 12.
See e.g. Council Directive (2004/113/EC) of 13 December 2004 implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services, OJ 2004 L 373/37.
- 13.
See e.g. Second Council Directive (77/91/EEC) of 13 December 1976 on coordination of safeguards which, for the protection of the interests of members and others, are required by Member States of companies within the meaning of the second paragraph of Article 58 of the Treaty, in respect of the formation of public limited liability companies and the maintenance and alteration of their capital, with a view to making such safeguards equivalent, OJ 1977 L 26/1.
- 14.
See above at fn. 8 and 9.
- 15.
Regulation (EC) No. 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations (Rome I), OJ 2008 L 177/6.
- 16.
Almost 10 years ago, I edited a collection of the existing private law acts in four languages, see Basedow, Jürgen (ed.). 1999–2002. European Private Law—Sources, vol. 1–3. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. In more recent years, many further acts have been adopted.
- 17.
- 18.
See Clark, David S. 1992. The Sources of Law. In Introduction to the law of the United States, eds. Tuğrul Ansay and David S. Clark, 33 and 45. Deventer/Boston: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publ.; as to a more comprehensive review see Schwartz, Alan and Robert E. Scott. 1995. The Political Economy of Private Legislatures. U. Pa. L. Rev. 143:595–654.
- 19.
Goode, Roy. 1997. International Restatements of Contract and English Contract Law. Uniform L. Rev. 231 at 234.
- 20.
Koziol, Helmut. 2004. Die “Principles of European Tort Law” der “European Group on Tort Law”. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 234–259.
- 21.
Heiss, Helmut. 2005. Europäischer Versicherungsvertrag—Initiativstellungnahme des Europäischen Wirtschafts- und Sozialausschusses verabschiedet. Versicherungsrecht 1–4.
- 22.
Hayton, David J., Sebastianus C. J. J. Kortmann and Hendrik L. E. Verhagen. 1999. Principles of European Trust Law. The Hague: Kluwer Law International; see also “Principles of European Trust Law”. 1999. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 748 with an introduction by Hayton, David J., Sebastianus C. J. J. Kortmann and Hendrik L. E. Verhagen.
- 23.
Visit the homepage of the European Group for Private International Law at http://www.gedip-egpil.eu .
- 24.
See “Gründung der Kommission für Europäisches Familienrecht”. 2002. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 194 and visit the homepage of the Commission on European Family Law at http://www.law.uu.nl/priv/cefl .
- 25.
See Wurmnest, Wolfgang. 2003. Common Core, Grundregeln, Kodifikationsentwürfe, Acquis-Grundsätze—Ansätze internationaler Wissenschaftlergruppen zur Privatrechtsvereinheitlichung in Europa. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 714 et sEq. and visit the homepage of the Study Group on a European Civil Code at http://www.sgecc.net/ .
- 26.
See above at fn. 5.
- 27.
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on European contract law, COM(2001) 398 final of 11 July 2001; as to the possibilities thereby provided for see the anthologies of Schulte-Nölke, Hans and Reiner Schulze (eds.). 2002. Europäisches Vertragsrecht im Gemeinschaftsrecht. Köln: Bundesanzeiger and of Grundmann, Stefan and Jules H. V. Stuyck (eds.). 2002. An Academic Green Paper on European Contract Law. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
- 28.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council—A more coherent European contract law—An action plan, COM(2003) 68 final of 12 February 2003.
- 29.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council—European Contract Law and the revision of the acquis: the way forward, COM(2004) 651 final of 11 October 2004.
- 30.
See Bar, Christian von, Hans Schulte-Nölke. 2005. Gemeinsamer Referenzrahmen für europäisches Schuld- und Sachenrecht. Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 165 and visit the homepage of the Joint Network on European Private Law at http://www.copecl.org .
- 31.
Bar, Christian von, Eric Clive 2009. Principles, Definitions and Model Rules of European Private Law—Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), vol. 1–6. Munich: Sellier; the Principles of European Insurance Contract Law which form part of the Draft Common Frame of Reference were published separately, see Basedow, Jürgen, John Birds, Malcolm Clarke, Herman Cousy and Helmut Heiss (eds.). 2009. Principles of European Insurance Contract Law (PEICL). Munich: Sellier.
- 32.
Commission Decision of 26 April 2010, setting up the Expert Group on a Common Frame of Reference in the area of European contract law, OJ 2010 L 105/109.
- 33.
European Commission convenes legal expert group to seek solutions on contract law, Press Release of the European Commission No. IP/10/595 of 21 May 2010.
- 34.
Green Paper from the Commission on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for consumers and businesses, COM(2010) 348 final of 1 July 2010.
- 35.
See the Press Release IP/11/523 of the European Commission of 3 May 2011; see the link to the feasibility study containing almost 200 draft rules as an annex.
- 36.
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Common European Sales Law, COM (2011) 635 of 11 October 2011.
- 37.
See Article 1:102 PEICL, above at fn. 34.
- 38.
Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China, adopted at the Second Session of the 9th National People’s Congress on March 15, 1999, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Guowuyuan Gongbao, April 19, 1999, Issue No. 11, p. 388; the help of Dr. Benjamin Pissler of the Max Planck Institute for Comparative and International Private Law at Hamburg in finding this reference is gratefully acknowledged. An English translation is available on the website “Judicial protection of IPR in China”, organized by Judge Jiang Zhipei of the Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China: http://www.chinaiprlaw.com/English/laws/laws2.htm .
- 39.
UNIDROIT, Principles of International Commercial Contracts, 2004.
- 40.
On the role of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts of 1994 as a model for the Chinese contract law, see Yuqing, Zhang and Huang Danhan. 2000. The new Contract Law in the People’s Republic of China and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts: A brief comparison. Uniform Law Review 429–440 at 430: “In drafting the new Contact Law, the Chinese legislators referred extensively to the UNIDROIT Principles of international commercial contracts. Many articles of the new contract law, in particular those in the chapter on general provisions, are similar in spirit to the UNIDROIT Principles.”
- 41.
See above at fn. 18.
- 42.
See recital 10 of the proposed CESL Regulation, above at fn. 49: “The agreement to use the Common European Sales Law should be a choice exercised within the scope of the respective national law which is applicable pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 593/2007 [Rome I]…”.
- 43.
See § 25 of Law no. 6465 of 7 April 2001 on Private International Law, German translation in RabelsZ 2006 70:342.
- 44.
See Article 41 of the Statute on the application of laws to civil relationships involving foreign elements of the People’s Republic of China, adopted by the 17th Session of the Standing Committee of the Eleventh National People’s Congress on 28 October 2010, English translation in YB PIL 2010 12:669; for the previous law laid down by the Supreme People’s Court see Pissler, Benjamin. 2007. Neue Regeln des Obersten Volksgerichts zum Internationalen Vertragsrecht der Volksrepublik China. Zeitschrift für Chinesisches Recht 337–346; Wolff, Lutz-Christian. 2008. VR China: Neue IPR-Regeln für Verträge. IPRax 55–61; Barth, Marcel and Gary Lock. 2007. Die aktuelle Auslegung des Obersten Volksgerichts zum Internationalen Vertragsrecht in China. Recht der Internationalen Wirtschaft 820–825, with an English translation of the provisions on 823–825.
- 45.
See Article 20 of the Act Governing the Application of Laws in Civil Matters Involving Foreign Elements of 26 May 2010, English translation by Chen, Rong-Chwan. Taiwan. In Codification in East Asia, ed. Wen-Yeu Wang, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, forthcoming in 2014.
- 46.
- 47.
Act no. 78 of 2006, English translation in Basedow, Jürgen, Harald Baum and Yuko Nishitani (eds.). 2008. Japanese and European Private International Law in Comparative Perspective. 405 et sEq. Tuebingen: Mohr Siebeck.
- 48.
Nishitani, Yuko. 2008. Party Autonomy and its Restrictions by Mandatory Rules in Japanese Private International Law: Contractual Conflicts Rules. In Japanese and European Private International Law in Comparative Perspective, eds. Basedow, Baum, Nishitani, 77 at 87–89.
- 49.
See Lenaerts, Koen and Piet van Nuffel. 1999. Europees Recht in Hoofdlijnen, no. 711, 689. Antwerpen: Maklu: “A regulation automatically belongs to the highest norms of the internal legal order of the Member States without any implementation into national law being necessary for that purpose.” (My translation from the Dutch original, J.B.; Koen Lenaerts is a judge at the European Court of Justice and a professor of law at the University of Leuven, Belgium).
References
Books
Bar, Christian von, Eric Clive(2009). Principles, Definitions and Model Rules of European Private Law—Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), vol. 1–6.
Basedow, Jürgen (ed.). (1999–2002) European Private Law—Sources, vol. 1–3.
Basedow, Jürgen, Harald Baum and Yuko Nishitani (eds.). (2008) Japanese and European Private International Law in Comparative Perspective.
Basedow, Jürgen, John Birds, Malcolm Clarke, Herman Cousy and Helmut Heiss (eds.). (2009) Principles of European Insurance Contract Law (PEICL).
Clark, David S. (1992). Introduction to the law of the United States.
Franco Ferrari (2000) The Unification of International Commercial Law.
Gerhard Köbler and Hermann Nehlsen (eds.) (1997) Festschrift für Karl Kroeschell zum 70. Geburtstag.
Grundmann, Stefan and Jules H. V. Stuyck (eds.). (2002) An Academic Green Paper on European Contract Law.
Hayton, David J., Sebastianus C. J. J. Kortmann and Hendrik L. E. Verhagen. (1999) Principles of European Trust Law.
Johnston, Graeme. (2005). The Conflict of Laws in Hong Kong.
Kurt Rebmann, Roland Rixecker and Franz Jürgen Säcker, (2007) Münchener Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch, 5th ed.
Lando, Ole and Hugh Beale (eds.). (2000) Principles of European Contract Law—Parts I and II.
Lando, Ole, Eric Clive, André Prüm and Reinhard Zimmermann (eds.). (2003) Principles of European Contract Law—Part III.
Legrand, Pierre (1999) Fragments on Law-as-Culture.
Lenaerts, Koen and Piet van Nuffel. (1999) Europees Recht in Hoofdlijnen.
Marc van Hoecke and François Ost (2000) The Harmonisation of European Private Law.
Mauro Cappelletti (1978) New Perspectives for a Common Law of Europe.
Schulte-Nölke, Hans and Reiner Schulze (eds.). (2002) Europäisches Vertragsrecht im Gemeinschaftsrecht.
Articles
Bar, Christian von, Hans Schulte-Nölke. (2005) Gemeinsamer Referenzrahmen für europäisches Schuld- und Sachenrecht. Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 165.
Barth, Marcel and Gary Lock. (2007) Die aktuelle Auslegung des Obersten Volksgerichts zum Internationalen Vertragsrecht in China. Recht der Internationalen Wirtschaft 820–825.
Goode, Roy (1997) International Restatements of Contract and English Contract Law. Uniform L. Rev. 231 at 234.
“Gründung der Kommission für Europäisches Familienrecht” (2002) Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 194.
Hayton, David J., Sebastianus C. J. J. Kortmann and Hendrik L. E. Verhagen. (1999). Principles of European Trust Law, Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 748.
Heiss, Helmut. (2005). Europäischer Versicherungsvertrag—Initiativstellungnahme des Europäischen Wirtschafts- und Sozialausschusses verabschiedet. Versicherungsrecht 1–4.
Koziol, Helmut. (2004). Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 234–259.
Nishitani, Yuko (2008) Party Autonomy and its Restrictions by Mandatory Rules in Japanese Private International Law: Contractual Conflicts Rules. In Japanese and European Private International Law in Comparative Perspective, eds. Basedow, Baum, Nishitani, 77 at 87–89.
Pissler, Benjamin (2007) Neue Regeln des Obersten Volksgerichts zum Internationalen Vertragsrecht der Volksrepublik China, Zeitschrift für Chinesisches Recht 337–346.
Schwartz, Alan and Robert E. Scott. (1995) The Political Economy of Private Legislatures. U. Pa. L. Rev. 143:595–654.
Wolff, Lutz-Christian (2008) VR China: Neue IPR-Regeln für Verträge. IPRax 55–61.
Wolff, Lutz-Christian. (2010) Hong Kong’s Conflict of Contract Laws: Quo Vadis? . Journal of Private International Law 6:465–498 at 468.
Wurmnest, Wolfgang. 2003. Common Core, Grundregeln, Kodifikationsentwürfe, Acquis-Grundsätze—Ansätze internationaler Wissenschaftlergruppen zur Privatrechtsvereinheitlichung in Europa. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht 714 et seq.
Yuqing, Zhang and Huang Danhan. (2000) The new Contract Law in the People’s Republic of China and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts: A brief comparison. Uniform Law Review 429–440 at 430.
Cases
ECJ 10 April 1984, case 14/83 (Sabine von Colson and Elisabeth Kamann v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen), [1984] E.C.R. 1891 cons. 26.
Internet and Other Sources
Judicial protection of IPR in China, organized by Judge Jiang Zhipei of the Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China:,http://www.chinaiprlaw.com/English/laws/laws2.htm.
Mario Monti, Report to the President of the European Commission José Manuel Barroso, 9.5.2010, p. 93, availabe at http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/pdf/monti_report_final_10_05_2010_en.pdf.
The homepage of the European Group for Private International Law at, http://www.gedip-egpil.eu.
The homepage of the Commission on European Family Law at, http://www.law.uu.nl/priv/cefl.
The homepage of the Study Group on a European Civil Code at, http://www.sgecc.net/.
The homepage of the Joint Network on European Private Law at, http://www.copecl.org.
Statute
Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China, adopted at the Second Session of the 9th National People’s Congress on March 15, 1999, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Guowuyuan Gongbao, April 19, 1999, Issue No. 11, p. 388.
Council Directive (93/13/EEC) of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts, OJ 1993 L 95/29.
Council Directive (2000/78/EC) of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, OJ 2000L 303/16.
Council Directive (2004/113/EC) of 13 December 2004 implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services, OJ 2004L 373/37.
Directive 2010/41/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged in an activity in a self-employed capacity and repealing Council Directive 86/613/EEC, OJ 2010L 180/1.
Regulation (EC) No. 40/94 of 20 December 1993 on the Community trade mark, OJ 1994L 11/1.
Regulation (EC) No. 2157/2001 of 8 October 2001 on the Statute for a European company (SE), OJ 2001L 294/1.
Regulation (EC) No. 261/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 establishing common rules on compensation and assistance to passengers in the event of denied boarding and of cancellation or long delay of flights, and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 295/91, OJ 2004L 46/1.
Regulation (EC) No. 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law apploicable to contractual obligations (Rome I), OJ 2008L 177/6.
Second Council Directive (77/91/EEC) of 13 December 1976 on coordination of safeguards which, for the protection of the interests of members and others, are required by Member States of companies wihtin the meaning of the second paragraph of Article 58 of the Treaty, in srespect of the formation of public limited liability companies and the maintenance and alteration of their capital, with a view to making such safeguards equivalent, OJ 1977L 26/1.
Others
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on European contract law, COM (2001) 398 final of 11 July 2001.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council—A more coherent European contract law—An action plan, COM (2003) 68 final of 12 February 2003.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council—European Contract Law and the revision of the acquis: the way forward, COM (2004) 651 final of 11 October 2004.
Commission Decision of 26 April 2010, setting up the Expert Group on a Common Frame of Reference in the area of European contract law, OJ 2010L 105/109.
Green Paper from the Commission on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for consumers and businesses, COM (2010) 348 final of 1 July 2010.
Law no. 6465 of 7 April 2001 on Private International Law, German translation in RabelsZ 2006 70:342.
Press Release of the European Commission No. IP/10/595 of 21 May 2010.
Press Release IP/11/523 of the European Commission of 3 May 2011.
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Common European Sales Law, COM (2011) 635 of 11 October 2011.
The Economic and Social Committee, The 28th Modell—an alternative allowing less lawmaking at Community level, Doc. INT/499—CESE 758/2010 of 27 May 2010.
UNIDROIT, Principles of International Commercial Contracts, 2004.
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Basedow, J. (2014). Supranational Codification of Private Law in Europe and Its Significance for Third States. In: Wang, WY. (eds) Codification in International Perspective. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-03455-3_3
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