Abstract
It was toward the end of the previous century that the commercial production techniques of aluminum were established, owing their success to the electrolytic reduction process. This development made it possible to use aluminum commercially and to exploit its many desirable properties. As a result aluminum now occupies a position of importance equal to iron and copper.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
A. Güntherschulze and H. Betz, Die Elektrolyt Kondensatoren, Verlag M. Krain, Berlin (1937).
A. Jenny, Die Elektrolytische Oxydation des Aluminiums und seine Legierungen Verlag von Steinkopf, Dresden and Leipzig (1938); Anodic Oxidation of Aluminium and its Alloys (transl. by W. Lewis), C. Griffin (1940) (no references).
Max Schenk, Werkstoffe Aluminium und seine Anodische Oxydation, A. Francke, Bern (1948).
A. M. Georgiev, The Electrolytic Capacitor, Murray Hill Books, Inc., New York (1945).
A. Miyata, Anodic Oxidation (in Japanese), Nikkann Kogyo Press, Tokyo (1953).
W. W. G. Hübner and A. Schiltknecht, Die Praxis der Anodischen Oxydation Aluminium Verlag, Düsseldorf (1956) (no references); The Practical Anodizing of Aluminium (transl. by W. Lewis), MacDonald and Evans, London (1960) (with selected bibliography).
C. Etienne and F. Flusin, Le Traitement de Surface de l’aluminium et des Alliages, Aluminium Français, Paris (1957).
S. Wernick and R. Pinner, The Surface Treatment and Finishing of Aluminium and its Alloys, 3rd. Ed., Robert Draper, Teddington (1964).
T. P. Hoar, Anodic Behaviour of Metals, in Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Vol. 1, J. O’M. Bockris, ed., Butterworth Publications, London (1959), pp. 262–342.
L. Young, Anodic Oxide Films, Academic Press, New York (1961).
W. S. Goruk, L. Young, and F. G. R. Zobel, Anodic and Electronic Currents at High Field in Oxide Films, in Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, Vol. 4, J. O’M. Bockris, ed., Plenum Press, New York (1966), pp. 176–250.
D. A. Vermilyea, Anodic Films, in Advances in Electrochemistry and Electrochemical Engineering, Vol. 3, P. Delahay, ed., Interscience, New York (1963), pp. 211–286.
A. V. Shreider, Oksidirovanie Alyuminiya i ego Spravov (Oxidation of Aluminum and Its Alloys), Metallurgizdat, Moscow (1960).
A. N. Gorbev, Anodnoe Okislenie Alyuminevykh Spravov ( Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum Alloys ), Akademiya Nauk SSSR (1961).
Fedot’ev and Grilke, Electropolishing, Anodizing and Electrolytic Pickling of Metals (Moscow, 1957) (transl. by A. Behr), Robert Draper, Teddington (1959).
G. H. Kissin, ed., The Finishing of Aluminum, Rheinhold, New York (1963).
ASTM, Anodized Aluminum (Symposium, Cleveland, 1965), ASTM Special Technical Publications No. 388 (1965).
S. Tajima, ed., Metal Finishing Handbook, revised Ed., Sangyo Toshio Publishing Co., Tokyo (1956).
Textbook of Alumite (in 9 Vol., in Japanese), Aluminium Sheet Products Society, Tokyo (1967).
Proceedings of the Conference on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962).
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967).
H. Buff, Über das elektrische Verhalten des Aluminiums, Liebigs Annalen 102, 265 (1857).
F. Wöhler und H. Buff, Über eine Verbindung von Silicium mit Wasserstoff, Liebigs Annalen 103, 218 (1857).
E. Ducretet, La résistance électrochimique, offerte pour l’aluminium employé comme électrode positive dans un voltamètre, Compt. Rend. 80, 280 (1875).
C. Pollak, DRP. 92, 564 (1896).
L. Graetz, Über ein elektrochemisches Verfahren, um Wechselströme in Gleichströme zu verwandeln, Z. Elektrochem. 4, 67 (1897).
K. Norden, Über den Vorgang an der Aluminiumanode (Ein Beitrag zur electrochemischen Umformung von Wechselstrom in Gleichstrom), Z. Elektrochem. 6, 159 (1899).
C. E. Skinner and L. W. Chubb, The Electrolytic Insulation of Aluminium Wire, Trans. Electrochem. Soc. 26, 137 (1914).
T. Kujirai and S. Ueki, Jap. P. 61,920 (Aug. 15, 1924, appl. Dec. 28, 1923 ).
S. Ueki, Jap. P. 62,278 (Feb. 5, 1924, appl. Dec. 20, 1923 ).
T. Kujirai and S. Ueki, Brit. P. 226, 536 (1925).
T. Kujirai and S. Ueki, US P. 1, 735, 286 (1926).
S. Setoh and S. Ueki, US P. 1,735,609 (Nov. 12, 1926 ).
G. Bengough and J. M. Stuart, Brit. P. 223,994 (Nov. 3, 1924, appl. Aug. 2, 1923;) US P. 1,771,910 (July 29, 1930 ).
G. Bengough and J. M. Stuart, Brit. P., 223,995 (Appl. Aug. 2, 1923 ).
S. Setoh and A. Miyata, Electrolytic Oxydation of Aluminium and Its Industrial Applications, Proc. World Engineering Congress, Vol. 22, Tokyo, 1929 (1931X pp. 73–100.
H. Röhrig, Elektrolytisch erzeugte oxydische Schutzschichten auf Aluminium, Z. Elektrochem. 37, 721 (1931).
H. Röhrig, Brit. P. 406, 998 (1934).
C. H. R. Gower and S. O’Brien, Brit. P. 290, 901 (1927).
C. H. R. Gower, Brit. P. 290,921 (1928), DR P. 600, 387 (1928).
E. W. Küttner, DR P. 620,898 (May 22, 1928 ).
H. Ginsberg, H. Neunzig und W. Sautter, Die Entwicklung der Overflächenschutzverfahren fur Aluminium aus der Sicht der VAW, Metall 21, 570 (1967).
W. Wetzki, Aus der Praxis der Anodischen Oxydation von Aluminium, Galvanotechnik 57, 843 (1966).
S. Setoh and A. Miyata, Researches on Anodic Film of Aluminium II, Anodic Behaviours of Aluminium in Aq. Solutions of Oxalic Acid, Sci. Pap. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res., Tokyo 19 (397), 237 (1932).
Th. Rummel, Über Wachstum und Aufbau elektrolytisch erzeugter Aluminium Oxydschichten, Z. Physik 99, 518 (1936).
W. Baumann, Entstehung und Struktur elektrolytisch erzeugter Aluminiumoxyd-schichten, Z. Physik 111, 708 (1939).
J. W. Cuthbertson, Anodic Oxidation of Aluminium, J. Inst. Metals 65, 95 (1939).
F. Keller, M. S. Hunter, and D. L. Robinson, Structural Features of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 100, 411 (1953).
J. F. Murphy and C. E. Michelson, A Theory for the Formation of Anodic Oxide Coatings on Aluminium, Proc. Conf. Anodizing Aluminium (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 83–95.
J. F. Murphy, Chemical and Electrochemical Factors in the Mechanism of Formation and Properties of Anodic Coatings, Proc. Symposium on Anodizing Aluminium (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 3–16.
J. F. Murphy, Practical Implications of Research on Anodic Coatings on Aluminum, Plating 54, 1241 (1967).
N. D. Pullen, An Anodic Treatment for the Production of Aluminium Reflectors, J. Inst. Metals, 151 (1936).
N. D. Pullen, Brit. P. 49,162 (Dec. 17, 1934 ).
R. B. Mason and M. Tosterud, US P. 2,040,618 (May 12, 1936); 2, 108, 603 (1938).
T. Nakayama, Jap. P., 128, 891 (1939).
N. D. Tomashov, Anodic Oxidation and Its Application in the Construction of Engines, Vestnik Inzhenerov i Tekhniskov 59 (1946).
N. D. Tomashov, Anodizing and Its Uses in Engine Construction, Light Metals 9, 429 (1946).
B. E. Diel and L. Swanson (to Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp.), US P. 3,031,387 (April 24, 1962, appl. Dec. 7, 1959 ).
S. Tajima, M. Soda, and T. Mori, Properties and Mechanism of Formation of a-Alumina (Corundum) Films on Aluminium by Anodic Oxidation in Bisulphate Melts, Electrochim. Acta 1, 205 (1959).
S. Tajima and N. Baba, Properties and Mechanism of Formation of Thick Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium from the Nonaqueous System of Boric Acid and Form-amide, Electrochim. Acta 9, 1509 (1964); Light Metals, Japan 14, 320 (1964).
W. Walkenhorst, Ein einfaches Verfahren zur Herstellung strukturloser Trägerschichten aus Aluminiumoxyd, Naturwiss. 34, 373 (1947).
S. Tajima, Y. Itoh, and T. Fukushima, Anodic Behavior of Highly Pure Aluminum in Organic Acid Bath. I. Direct Current Electrolysis in Monocarbonic Acids, 23, 296 (1955); II. Direct Current Electrolysis in Oxycarbonic Acid, Denki Kagaku 23, 342 (1955); III. Direct Current Electrolysis in Oxycarbonic Acids and Maleic Acid, Denki Kagaku 23, 395 (1955).
S. Tajima, Beitrag zur Theorie der anodisch gebildeten Oxydschichten auf Aluminium, Metall 18, 581 (1964).
L. Bosdorf, A Review of Anodic Oxidation and New Processes in this Field, Metal Finish. J. 104 (1966).
R. Gardam, Die Entwicklung der Anodisation des Aluminiums und seiner Legierungen, Aluminium 40, 165 (1964); Aluminium Conference, Budapest (1963).
S. Tajima and M. Shimura, Statistical Analysis of Formation and Dissolution of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, Denki Kagaku 32, 883 (1964); Electroplating and Metal Finishing 17, 144 (1964).
R. B. Mason and C. J. Slunder, Anodic Reactions of Aluminum and Its Alloys in Sulfuric and Oxalic Acid Electrolytes, Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, 1602 (1947).
J. Walton, Beitrag zur Technik der anodischen Oxydation von Aluminium unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Alumilite Verfahrens, Aluminium-Archiv., Vol. 1, Aluminium Zentrale, Berlin (1935).
H. Bengston and Pettit, The Alumilite Process for Decorating and Protecting Aluminum Products, Machinist (Europ. Ed.) 77, 76 (1933).
A. Prati, F. Sacchi, and G. Paolini, Effect of Operating Conditions on the Properties of Sulphuric Acid Anodic Oxide Coatings, Electroplating and Metal Finishing 2, 44 (1963).
G. R. Darrow, Engineering the Sulfuric Anodic Processes, Anodized Aluminum, ASTM STP 388 (1965).
Anodisch Oxydiertes Aluminium für Dekorative Zwecke, Aluminium-Merkblatt 04, Aluminium Zentrale E.V., Düsseldorf (5, Auflage, 1967 ).
G. H. Kissin, B. E. Deal, and R. V. Paulson, Anodizing Characteristics of Commercial Aluminum Alloys in Sulfuric Acid, Finishing of Aluminum, G. H. Kissin, ed., Reinhold, New York (1963), pp. 13–31.
M. N. Tyukina, Investigations of the Anodic Oxidation of Al—Cu Alloys in Sulfuric Acid, Zh. Prik. Khim. 36, 338 (1963).
A. F. Bogozavlevskij, Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum in an Ultrasonic Field, Zh. Prik. Khim. 37, 2256 (1964).
S. Setoh and A. Miyata, Researches on the Anodic Oxide Film on Aluminium. I. Effect of Concentration of the Electrolyte on the Formation of Anodic Film, Sci. Pap. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res., Tokyo 19, 189 (1932).
S. Tajima, Anodizing Aluminum with Oxalic Acid, Products Finishing 17, 43 (1952).
W. W. Hübner, Die anodische Oxydation des Aluminiums in verschiedenen zusammengesetzten Oxalsäurelösungen, Dissertation, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zürich (1948).
Max Schenk, Swiss P. 182,415, 188,228, 221,938, and 232,613.
E. Zurbrügg, Bewährung der GS-Oxydschichten von Aluminium, Aluminium 39, Aluminium Anwendungen in Bauwesen (1963), pp. 419–421.
H. Neunzig und V. Röhrig, Anodisch erzeugte Oxydschichten in Schwefel-Oxal Säure Elektrolyten, Metall 18, 590 (1964).
W. Sautter, Einfluss der Verfahrenstechnik auf die Eigenschaften anodisch erzeugter Oxydschichten von Aluminium, Aluminium 42, 636 (1966).
G. D. Bengough and H. Sutton, The Protection of Aluminium and Its Alloys Against Corrosion by Anodic Oxidation, Engineering 122, 274 (1926); Metal Industry (London) 29, 153, 175 (1926).
B. C. Lewsey, Anodic Oxidation and Colouring of Aluminium, Electroplating and Metal Spraying 8 (1952).
A. W. Brace and R. Peek, Production and Properties of Opaque Coating by Anodic Oxidation in Chromic Acid, Trans. Inst. Metal Finish. 34, Advance copy No. 3 (1957).
F. Modic, Neuere Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiet der anodischen Oxydation von Aluminium in Chromsäure, Aluminium 39, 169 (1963).
W. E. Gorden and M. E. Cupery, Sulfamic Acid, Industrial Application, Ind. Eng. Chem. 31, 1237 (1939).
R. Piontelli, Un nuovo bagno per l’ossidazione anodica dell’alluminio, La Ricerca Scientifica 12, 1195 (1941); Ital. P. 388,932 (Mar. 16, 1941 ).
R. Piontelli, Ober die Anwendung sulfaminsäure Bäder bei der Abscheidung galvanischer Oberzüge und bei anodischer Oxydation, Korr. u. Metallschutz 19, 110 (1943).
S. Tajima, T. Fukushima, and Y. Kimura, Anodizing Aluminum with Sulfamic Acid, Comparison with Oxalic and Sulfuric Acid Processes, Metal Finishing (Oct.) 67, (Nov.) 65, 74 (1952).
E. W. Schweikher (to E. I. du Pont et Nemours and Co.) US P. 2, 430, 304 (1947).
T. Fukushima, Anodizing and Electropolishing with Sulfamic Acid, Chimica Metallica, Tokyo 2, 234 (1965).
J. Fischer, US P. 2, 036, 962 (1936).
J. Fischer, US P. 2, 095, 519 (1937).
R. C. Spooner and D. P. Seraphim, Phosphoric Acid Anodizing of Aluminium and Its Application to Electroplating, Trans. Inst. Metal Finish. 31 (3), (1953).
ALCOA, Electroplating on Aluminum and Its Alloys (1946).
H. J. Wittrock, Nickel-Chromium Plating upon Anodized Aluminum, Finishing of Aluminum, G. H. Kissin, ed., Reihold, New York (1963), pp. 163–191.
S. Tajima, Besondere Vorbehandlungen für Metalle und Nichtleiter, in Handbuch der Galvanotechnik, Vols. 1 and 2, Dettner-Elze, ed., Carl Hanser Verlag, München (1965), pp. 1033–1049.
H. J. Wittrock, Nickel-Chromium Plating upon Anodized Aluminum, paper read at the 48th Ann. Convention of the American Electroplaters’ Soc. (1961).
A. F. Dickinson, Tests on Alzak Aluminium Reflectors, Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc. 29, 368 (1934).
J. D. Edwards, Aluminum for Reflectors, Trans. Ilium. Eng. Soc. 29, 351 (1934).
S. G. Frederichsen, Manufacturing of Bright Anodized Parts for the Car Industry, Metallen (Sweden) 22, 131 (1966).
E. Hutgren and O. Jakobson, Bright Anodizing of Aluminum, Metallen (Sweden) 22, 151 (1966).
J. H. Weaver, Bright Anodized Coatings for Temperature Control of Space Vehicles, Plating (Dec.), 1165 (1964).
J. M. Andrus and R. Pettit, Chemical Preparation of Aluminum for Chemical, Electrochemical Brightening and Anodic Coating, in Anodized Aluminum, ASTM STP 388 (1965), pp. 1–20.
E. Zurbrügg and H. Hug, Choice of Material for Anodizing, Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing, Aluminium Suisse 1, 1 (1951).
E. Zurbrügg and H. Hug, Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing, Aluminium Suisse 2, 11 (1952).
E. Baumann and H. Neunzig, Chemically Brightened Anodized Aluminium and Its Employment in Automobile Manufacture, Trans. Inst. Metal Finish. 33, Advance copy No. 4 (1956).
G. E. Gardam and R. Peek, Studies in Bright Anodizing by the Ammonium Bifluoride-Nitric Acid Process, Trans. Inst. Metal Finish. 33, Advance copy No. 3 (1956).
A. W. Brace, The Anodizing and Brightening of Aluminium and Its Alloys, Influence of Composition and Structure, Metallurgia 55, 173 (1957).
N. Kawashima, Effect of Alloying Elements and Structure of Aluminum and Its Alloys on Electropolishing and Anodizing, Aluminum Finishing Research Report., Metropolitan Industrial Research Inst., Tokyo (1957), No. 26, pp. 1–18.
R. Peek and A. W. Brace, Bright Anodizing by the Modified Erftwerk Process, Electroplating and Metal Finishing (March), 1 (1958).
R. Lattey, Der heutige Stand des Glanzeloxierens von Aluminium, Aluminium 34, 382 (1958).
A. W. Brace, European Bright Anodizing Practice, Proc. Am. Electroplaters’ Soc. 46, 216, 379 (1959).
A. W. Brace, Anodized Aluminium Body Trim, Bulletin of Body Engineers (May), 3 (1958).
W. E. Cooke, Factors Affecting Loss of Brightness and Image Clarity during Anodizing of Bright Trim Aluminum Alloys in Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte, Plating (Nov.), 1157 (1962).
B. A. Shenoi, K. S. Indira, and K. Vijayalakshimi, Bright Finishing Super-Purity Aluminum, Metal Finishing (April), 44 (May), 49 (1962).
B. A. Scott and H. M. Bigford, Bright Anodized Aluminium Surfaces, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 55–65.
Anonym., Automatically Brightening and Anodizing Aluminium, Automotive Engineer (March), 2 (1962).
A. Reuter, Betriebliche Fehlerquellen beim Glänzen and Anodisieren, Aluminium 39, 421 (1963).
S. Terai and H. Nishimura, Application of Bright Anodized Aluminum Alloys for Automobile, Sumitomo Light Metal Technical Reports 6, 135 (1966).
R. Sundberg and L. O. Samuelson, Aluminium Alloys for Bright Anodizing, Metallen (Sweden) 22, 135 (1966).
A. Teubler, Metallurgical Aspects of Bright Anodizing, Proc. Intern. Symp. on Anodising (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 71–95.
S. Setoh and A. Miyata, Effect of Concentration of the Electrolyte on the Formation of Anodic Film, Sci. Pap. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res., Tokyo 19 (396), 189 (1932).
Th. Rummel, Über Wachstum und Aufbau elektrolytisch erzeugter Aluminiumoxydschichten, Z. Physik 99, 518 (1936).
G. Elssner, Schichtwachstum und Massenveränderung bei der elektrolytische Oxydation des Aluminiums, Aluminium 25, 310 (1943).
G. Elssner und A. Breyer, Das Dickenwachstum anodisch erzeugter Oxydschichten auf Aluminium und seine Grenzen, Archiv. für Metallkunde 4, 120 (1948).
N. D. Tomashov, Anodic Oxidation and Its Application in the Construction of Engines, Vestnik Inzhenerov i Teknikov (2), 59 (1946).
N. D. Tomashov, Anodizing and Its Application in Engine Construction, Light Metals 9, 429 (1948).
G. L. Martin, US P. 2,692,851, 2,692,852 (1950), Brit. P. 701, 390 (1951).
W. J. Campbell, Hard Surfacing Light Alloys by Anodizing, Light Metals 15, 46 (1952).
W. J. Campbell, Anodized Aluminium Surfaces for Wear Resistance, J. Electrodep. Tech. Soc. 28, 273 (1952).
W. J. Campbell, Anodic Finishes for Wear Resistance, Metal Finishing J. (Jan.), 5 (1964).
F. Gillig, Study of Hard Coatings for Aluminum, WADC (Wright Air Development Center) Technical Report 53–151 (May, 1953 ), p. 113.
W. J. Campbell, Anodic Finishes for Wear Resistance, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 137–149.
Sanford Process Co., US P. 2,897,125, 2,692,852.
J. M. Kape, Thick Oxide Films on Aluminium and Its Alloys, Met. Ind. 91 (4) 63; (5) 90; (6) 109; (7) 129; (8) 148; (9) 171; (10) 198; (11) 217, 222; (12) 239 (1957). W. M. Doyle and L. T. Harris (to High Duty Allog Ltd.), Brit. P. 727, 749.
P. Csokân, Beiträge zur Kenntnis der anodischen Oxydation von Aluminium in verdünnter, kalter Schwefelsäure, Metalloberfläche 15, 113 (1961).
P. Csokân, Beitrag zur Frage des Bildungsmechanisms von anodische erzeugten Hartoxydschichten, Werk. u. Korr. 12, 288 (1961).
P. Csokân, Einfluss der Oberflächenbeschaffenheit des Aluminiums auf die anodische Hartoxydbildung, Schleif-und Poliertechnik 1, 25 (1961).
P. Csokân, Hard Anodizing, Electroplating and Metal Finishing 15, 75 (1962).
P. Csokân und G. Sinay, Untersuchung der mechanischen Eigenschaften von harteloxierten Alumniumblechen, Werk. u. Korr. 11, 224 (1960).
P. Csokân, Réalisation d’un revêtment d’oxyde dur sur l’aluminium par oxydation anodique, Corrosion et Anticorrosion 8, 158 (1960).
P. Csokân, Anwendung von harteloxierten Aluminiumbestandteilen für den Maschienenbau, Dechema-Monographien 45, 319 (1962).
P. Csokân, Über die Prüfmethoden von anodisch erzeugten Hartoxydschichten, Elektrie 8, 245 (1962).
P. Csokân, Kemény oxiddal bevont aluminiumkokillak gyakorlati felhasznalasa, GEP 12, 489 (1960).
P. Csokân, Festigkeitseigenschaften der mit Hartoxydschichten überzogenen Aluminiumoberfläche, Bleche (12), 649 (1962).
K. Isawa, A. Furuichi, and K. Takamura, Studies on Hard Anodic Films on Al and Its Alloys, Sci. Pap. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res., Tokyo 36, 685 (1960).
S. Tajima, Formation and Properties of Hard Anodic Films on Aluminum, Chimica Metallica, Tokyù 1, 61 (1964).
M. Stalzer, Entwicklungen auf dem Gebiet des Harteloxierens, Metalloberfläche 16, 11 (1962).
H. J. Wiesner and H. A. Meers, Hard Anodizing of Fuel Metering Component, discussion, 45th Ann. Techn. Proc., Am. Electroplaters’ Soc. (1958).
A. Chappuis, Anodische Oxydation der Federgehäuse automatischer Uhren, Aluminium Suisse 12, 130 (1962).
Lelong, P. Segonds, and J. Herenguel, An Anodising Process to Produce Very Thick Oxide Films, Fr. P. 1,005,592 (1952); Rev. Aluminium 37, 67 (1960).
A. Jogarao and B. Sambamurty, Studies on Hard Anodizing of Aluminium I, Proc. Symp. on Electrodeposition and Metal Finishing (Karaikudi, 1957), India Section, Electrochem. Soc., Inc. (1960), pp. 147–155.
A. Jogarao and B. Sambamurty, Electrolytic Formation of Abrasion and Heat-Resistant Coatings on Aluminium, J. Sci. Ind. Res. 19B (2), 82 (1960); (Ind. P. Appli. No. 67, 572 ).
V. Lakshminarasimhan, K. R. Narasimhan, and B. A. Shenoi, Hard Anodizing Aluminum and Its Alloys, Metal Finishing (March), 60 (1967).
R. V. Vanden Berg, Hard Aluminum Finishes Resist Wear and Abrasion, Iron Age 170 (18), 81 (1952).
H. A. Johnson, Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Hard Coatings, Product Engineering (Sept.), 136 (1954).
F. Sacchi, L’ossidazione anodica a spessore dell’alluminio e delle sue leghe, Alluminio 5 (1955).
L. Bosdorf und A. Breyer, Die Harteloxierung, Aluminium (7/8), 321 (1955).
A. W. Sweet, Practical Aspects of Aluminum Hard Coating, Plating 1191 (1957).
E. P. Owens, How to Judge the Quality of Aluminum Hard Coatings, Iron Age (Feb. 12 ), 108 (1959).
K. Tsunoda, Hard Anodizing, Aluminum Finishing Research Rept., Metropolitan Ind. Res. Inst., Tokyo (1959), No. 38, pp. 1–22.
E. Hermann, Harteloxierung, Galvanotechnik (8), 387 (1960).
D. R. Johnson, Hard Coat as a Metal Finishing Process, Plating 986 (1963).
T. L. Rama Char and J. Sundrarajan, Recent Development in Hard anodizing, Proc. Symp. on Electrodeposition and Metal Finishing (Karaikudi, 1957), India Section, Electrochem. Soc., Inc. 1960 ), pp. 160–164.
E. Lichtenberger and M. Holló, Influence du traitement préliminaire sur la structure des péllicules d’oxyde anodique formée en acide oxalique-acide formique, Métaux, Corrosion-Industrie (449), 1 (1963).
L. Bosdorf, Die anodische Oxydation und Ihre neuen Verfahren auf diesemGebiete, Galvanotechnik 54, 66 (1963); Metal Finishing J. (March), 104 (1966).
G. E. Gardam, Verfahren zur Erzeugung anodisch oxydierter Schichten mit Eigenfärbung auf Aluminium für Architekturzwecke, Aluminium 41, 423 (1965).
E. A. Bloch und E. Zurbrügg, Neue Möglichkeiten zur Erzeugung farbiger Oxidschichten auf Aluminium, Aluminium 42, 101–103 (1966).
J. M. Kape, The Use of Integral Colour Processes for Architectural Anodizing, Proc. Intern. Symposium on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation (1967), pp. 123–132; Light Metals 25 (307), 26 (1963).
J. M. Kape, Unusual Anodizing Processes and Their Practical Applications, Electroplating and Metal Finishing 14, 407 (1961).
I. Mita, Coloring of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, Chimica Metallica, Tokyo 2, 308 (1965).
G. Paolini, Integral Color Anodizing for Architectural Use, Aluminio 35, 435 (1966).
P. O. Aronson, Color for Anodized Aluminum, Metallen (Sweden) 21, 67 (1965).
F. C. Porter, Anodizing Practice, Recent Advances, Corros. Techn. 10, 5, 40 (1963).
Korpiun (to Schering-Kahlbaum AG) DRP. 657,902 (appl. Dec. 12, 1935), 664,240 (appl. Dec. 10, 1935 ).
J. M. Kape, Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Surface by Anodic Oxidation, Metal Finishing J. (Feb., 7 (1958).
F. L. Church, Light-Fast Colors for Anodized Architectural Aluminum, Modern Metals (Sept.), 36 (1962).
P. Brenner and H. U. von Vogel, Einfluss von Struktur auf die Farbe der Eloxalschichen der Al-Mg Legierungen, Aluminium 19, 696 (1937).
F. Keller and G. W. Wilcox, Anodically Oxidized Aluminum Alloys-Metallographic Examination, Metals and Alloys (June), 8 (1939).
F. Keller, G. W. Wilcox, M. Tosterud, and C. J. Slunder, Anodic Coatings on Aluminum, Behavior of Alloy Contents, Metals and Alloys (July), 7 (1939).
R. Richuad, L’Oxydation anodique des alliages d’aluminium contenant du silicium, Memoirs Scientifiques de la Rev. de Métallurgie 56, 30 (1959).
H. Vosskühler and H. Zeiger, Grau anodisierbare Aluminiumknetlegierungen, Aluminium 38, 291 (1962).
G. Kappel, “Grinatal,” eine Grautonlegierung des Typs A1Si für dekorative Anwendung, Aluminium 39, 428 (1963).
E. Zurbrügg, Grinatal und Grinacolor, Aluminium Suisse 14, 8 (1964).
AlSi“ mit grauer Eigenfärbung bei der anodischen Oxydation, Aluminium-Merkblatt W 16, Aluminium Zentrale E.V., Düsseldorf (1967).
T. Nakayama, Can. Pat. 602, 194 (1961).
S. Tajima, F. Satoh, N. Baba, and T. Fukushima, Influence of Current Forms on Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum in Sulfuric Acid and Oxalic Acid, J. Electrochem. Soc., Japan, Overseas edition E262 (1958).
F. B. Flick, US P. 1,526,127 (appl. July 10, 1923 ).
H. Bengston, US P. 1,869,041 (appl. June 11, 1930 ).
R. Shirotsuka, Jap. P. 62,278 (appl. Jan. 24, 1930 ).
M. Tosterud, US P. 1,900,472 (Sept. 9, 1931 ).
Weather Resistant Aluminium Dyestuffs for Architecture Basel, Durand, and Hugenin S.A. (1959).
C. T. Speiser, La Résistance au soleil et aux intempéries des colorants organiques, Rev. Aluminium (Feb.), 225 (1962).
R. C. Spooner, Light-Fastness of Organic Dyes on Anodized Aluminum, Metal Finishing J. (Nov.), 1 (1958).
R. C. Spooner, Light-Fast Organic Dyes for Anodizing, Met. Ind. 94 (4), 68; (6), 107 (1959).
C. T. Speiser, Theory and Practice in Dyeing and Sealing Anodized Aluminium, Electroplating and Metal Finishing 9, 106, 128 (1956).
Multi-Color Effects on Anodized Aluminium, Basel, Durand, and Hugenin S.A. (1957).
Multi-Color Effects on Anodized Aluminium, Trans. Inst. Metal. Fin. 35, 91 (1958).
C. T. Speiser, Neuere Entwicklung auf dem Gebiet des Färbens von anodisch oxydiertem Aluminium, Aluminium 42, 421 (1966).
Hübner-Schiltknecht, Die Praxis der Anodischen Oxydation, Aluminium Verlag, Düsseldorf (1956); The Practical Anodizing of Aluminium (transl. by W. Lewis), MacDonald and Evans, London (1960), p. 334.
S. Shono and I. Mita, Dyeing Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, J. Met. Fin. Soc., Japan 10, 238, 306 (1956).
I. Mita, Coloring Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, Chimica Metallica, Tokyo, 2, 308 (1965).
R. V. Vanden Berg, Color and Textures for Aluminum, Products Engineering (Sept.), 101 (1957).
R. V. Vanden Berg, Technique for Coloring Anodized Aluminum, Products Finishing (Feb.), 2 (1960).
E. Hermann and W. Hübner, Färben von anodisch oxydierten Aluminium mittels anorganischer Pigments, Aluminium Suisse 5, 134 (1955).
J. M. Kape and H. Mills, The Prdduction of Coloured Anodic Film without the use of Dyestuffs, Advance copy of the Spring Conf., Brighton, Inst. Metal Fin. (1959), p. 37.
I. Mita and H. Kawase, Coloring Architectural Aluminum with Inorganic Pigments and the Light-Fastness and Outdoor Exposure Tests, Aluminum Finishing Research Report, Metropolitan Industrial Res. Inst., Tokyo (1963), No. 65, pp. 1–20.
Asada, Jap. P. Prov. No. Sho 38–1715 (1963); Brit. P. 1, 022, 927.
H. Ginsberg (to Vereinigte Aluminium Werke AG), DR P. 670, 903 (1938).
O. Schaaber (to S. Junghans), DR P. Anm. 16/10 P350,87D (Dec. 9, 1949); US P. 2, 666, 023 (1954).
Tatsuta Technical Review (Tatsuta Electric Wire and Cable Co., Japan) (1), 88 (1967).
T. Yasuda and H. Hamaguchi, Application of a-Alumina Film Anodically Formed in Bisulfate Melts in Electrical Engineering Field, preprint No. 510 of the Joint Meeting of four electrical engineering societies, Japan (1961).
J. M. Kape, Anodizing in Non-Aqueous Solvent System, Plating (Jan.), 26 (1968).
D. Nickelson, Continuous Anodizing and Lacquering, Metal. Ind. (Jan.), 22 (1960).
J. M. Kape, Recent Development in Anodizing, Light Metal Ind. (March), 45 (1964).
P. Csokän, Technologie der kontinuierlichen Anodisierung von Aluminiumbändern und drähten, Werk. u. Korr. 4, 307 (1964).
H. N. Johnston, Continuously Anodized Aluminum Coil, Ind. Finish. (Feb.), 108 (1967).
F. L. Church, Continuous Process Anodizes One Side of Coiled Sheet at High Speed at Low Cost, Modern Metals 19, 32 (1963).
E. Hermann, Eloxieren von Bändern und Drähten, Aluminium 29, 465, 513 (1953).
H. Richaud, Continuous Electrolytic Oxidation of Aluminium Wire and Strip, Metal Finishing J. 3 (26), 71 (1957).
E. F. Barkman, New Techniques Expand Continuous Anodizing Applications, Proc. Intern. Symp. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 115–121.
E. F. Barkman, Technological Advances in Electrochemical Finishing of Aluminum, Plating (May), 508 (1967).
E. Lichtenberger-Bajza and G. J. V. Jagandha-Raju, Rapid Anodizing, Electroplating and Metal Finishing 15, 342 (1962).
R. C. Spooner, The Sealing of Sulfuric Acid Anodic Films on Aluminum, 44th Annual Techn. Proc., Am. Electroplaters’ Soc. (1957), pp. 132–142.
F. Sacchi and G. Paolini, Controllo del fissaggio degli strati dei ossido anodico mediante la prova alla goccia, Alluminio 30, 9 (1961).
H. Richaud, The Influence of Sealing Water Impurities on the Quality of the Oxide Film, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation (1962), pp. 181–185.
N. Neunzig and V. Röhrig, Über die Abhängigkeit der Güte der Eloxalschicht von ihrer Nachverdichtung, Aluminium 38, 150 (1962).
W. E. Cooke and R. C. Spooner, Sealing Anodized Aluminum, Metal Finishing J. (July) (1960).
J. Elze, Prüfung der Nachverdichtung anodisch erzeugter Oxydschichten auf Aluminium, Aluminium 38, 161 (1962).
G. Paolini and F. Sacchi, Controllo della prova di fissaggio ISML su strati ossido anodico ottenuti in diverse condizioni operative, Alluminio 31, 411 (1962).
G. Darnault, Die Bedeutung der Verdichtung und deren Prüfung für das Verhalten von anodisch erzeugten Oxydschichten auf Aluminium und seinen Legierungen, Aluminium 40, 290 (1964).
H. Birtel und W. Leute, Die Kontrolle der Verdichtung anodische erzeugter Oxyd-schichten auf Aluminium, Aluminium 41, 52 (1965).
E. F. Barkman, Sealing and Post Anodic Treatments, in Aodized Aluminum, ASTM STP 388 (1965), pp. 85–120.
M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibrium in Aqueous Solutions, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966).
E. Deltombe and M. Pourbaix, The Electrochemical Behavior of Aluminum, Potential pH Diagram of the System Al-H20 at 25°C, Corrosion 14, 496t (1958); Rapport technique RT 42 of CEBELCOR, December 1955.
J. E. Lewis and R. C. Plumb, Studies of Anodic Behavior of Aluminum, I. The Direction of Ionic Movement, J. Electrochem. Soc. 105, 495 (1958).
R. C. Plumb, Studies of the Anodic Behavior of Aluminum, II. Coulometry of Barrier Layer Production, J. Electrochem. Soc. 105, 498 (1958).
E. J. W. Verwey, Incomplete Atomic Arrangement in Crystals, J. Chem. Phys. 3, 592 (1935).
E. J. W. Verwey, The Structure of the Electrolytic Oxide Layers on Aluminum, Z. Krist. 91, 317 (1935).
C. S. Taylor, C. M. Tucker, and J. D. Edwards, Anodic Coatings with Crystalline Structure on Aluminum, Trans. Electrochem. Soc. 88, 325 (1945).
N. D. Pullen, Oxide Films on Aluminium, Met. Ind., London 54, 327 (1939).
J. D. Edwards and F. Keller, Formation of Anodic Coatings on Aluminum, Trans. Electrochem. Soc. 79, 135 (1941).
A. Domony und E. Lichtenberger-Bajza, Untersuchung des Bildungsmechanismus und der Eigenschaften der durch verschiedene äussere Energieverhältnisse auf Aluminiumoberflächen entstehenden Schutzschichten, Metalloberfläche 15, 134 (1961).
M. S. Hunter and P. Fowle, Determination of Barrier Layer Thickness of Anodic Oxide Coatings, J. Electrochem. Soc. 103, 481 (1956).
H. Ginsberg and K. Wefers, Zur Struktur der anodischen Deckschichten auf Aluminiumoberflächen, Metall 16, 173, 202 (1963).
G. A. Dorsey, Jr., The Characterization of Anodic Aluminas, I. Composition of Films from Anodic Aluminas, J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 169 (1966); II. Effect of Anodizing Temperature on Coatings from Aliphatic Dicarboxilic Electrolytes, 113, 173 (1966); III. Barrier Layer Composition and Structure, 113, 284 (1966).
F. Liechti and W. D. Treadwell, Zur Kenntnis elektrolytisch erzeugter Oxydschichten auf Aluminium, Heiv. Chim. Acta 30, 1204 (1947).
R. B. Mason, Factors Affecting the Formation of Anodic Oxide Coatings in Sulfuric Acid Electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 102, 671 (1965).
E. Lichtenberger-Bajza, A. Domony, and P. Csokän, Untersuchung der Struktur und andere Eigenschaften von durch anodische Oxydation auf Aluminium erzeugten Hartoxydschichten, Werk. und Korr. 11, 701 (1960).
A. W. Brace and H. Baker, The Incorporation of Sulfate into Anodic Coatings Using Radioactive Sulfur as Tracer, Trans. Inst. Met. Fin. 40, 31 (1963).
E. Raub, H. Kawase, and A. von Krusenstjern, Untersuchungen zur anodischen Oxydation von Aluminium in Schwefelsäure Elektrolyten mit Hilfe der Radioindikatormethode, Metalloberfläche 21, 144 (1967).
W. McNeil and L. L. Guss, Anodic Film Growth by Anion Deposition in Aluminate, Tungstate and Phosphate Solutions, J. Electrochem. Soc. 110, 853 (1963).
S. Tajima, N. Baba, and M. Shimura, Einfluss von Anionen und Inhibitoren auf die Primärenwachstumsvorgänge der anodischen Oxydschichten auf Aluminium, Extended Abstracts, 17th Meeting of CITCE (1966), pp. 27–29; Electrochim. Acta 12, 955 (1967).
S. Tajima, N. Baba, T. Mori, and M. Shimura, Influence of Anions on the Initial Growth of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium Including Integrally Coloured Films, Proc. Intern. Symp. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 37–42.
S. Tajima, T. Mori, and Y. Shibata, Optical Studies on Anodic Films on Aluminum I, Light Metals, Japan 14 (66), 239 (1964).
S. Tajima, T. Mori, N. Morita, and S. Yamao, Optical Studies on Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum II, Light Metals, Japan 14, 245 (1964).
M. J. Pryor and D. S. Keir, A Method for the Isolation of Surface Films from Aluminum Alloys and the Mechanism of the Reactions Involved, J. Electrochem. Soc. 102, 370 (1955).
E. J. W. Verwey, Electrolytic Conduction in a Solid Insulator at High Field—The Formation of the Anodic Oxide Film on Aluminum, Physica 2, 1059 (1935).
M. A. Barrett, Studies with Ellipsometry, II. Optical Constants of Aluminium and of Aluminium Oxide Films, Metallurgisk Institutt, Norges Tekniske Hogskole, Trondheim (1967).
K. Huber, Die anodische Glänzung und ihre Beziehung zur Anodischen Passivierung, Z. Electrochem. 55, 165 (1951).
S. Anderson, Mechanism of Electrolytic Oxidation of Aluminum, J. Appl. Phys. 15, 477 (1944).
G. Hass and A. P. Bradford, Anodically Produced Multiple Oxide Films for Increasing the Reflectance of Evaporated Aluminum, J. Opt. Soc., Am. 44, 810 (1954).
J. J. Davis, J. P. S. Pringle, A. L. Graham, and F. Brown, A Tracer Study of Anodic Oxidation, J. Electrochem. Soc. 109, 999 (1962).
J. A. Davis, J. Domeij, J. P. S. Pringle, and F. Brown, J. Electrochem. Soc. 112, 675 (1965).
P. E. Doherty and R. S. Davis, The Formation of Surface Pits by the Condensation of Vacancies, Acta Met. 7, 118 (1959).
J. Whitton, Measurement of Ionic Mobilities in the Anodic Oxides of Tantalum and Zirconium by a Precision Section Technique. J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 58 (1968).
H. A. Francis, Direct Observation of the Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 112, 1234 (1965).
D. Vermilyea, The Formation of Anodic Oxide Films on Tantalum in Non-Aqueous Solutions, Acta Met. 2, 482 (1954).
A. J. Dekker and W. Vh. van Geel, On the Amorphous and Crystalline Oxide Layers on Aluminium, Philips Rep. 2, 313 (1947).
G. Amsel and D. Samuel, The Mechanism of Anodic Oxidation, J. Phys. Chem. Solids. 23, 1707 (1962).
W. J. Bernard, Ionic Movement during the Growth of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 109, 1082 (1962).
R. W. Berry, B. L. Kennedy, and H. Waggener, An Investigation of the Diffusing Species in the Anodic Growth of Tantalum and Aluminum Oxides, presented at the spring meeting of the Electrochem. Soc., Pittsburgh, Pa. (1963).
J. J. McMullen and M. J. Pryor, The Relation between Passivation, Corrosion and the Electrical Characteristics of Aluminium Oxide Films, Proc. 1st Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion, Butterworth, London (1961), pp. 149–156.
J. C. Banter, Incorporation of Ions in Anodic Oxide Films on Zirconium and the Effect on Film Behavior, J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 508 (1967).
T. P. Hoar and N. F. Mott, Mechanism of Porous Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 9, 97 (1959).
M. A. Heine and M. J. Pryor, The Distribution of A.C. Resistance in Oxide Film on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 110, 1205 (1963).
A. J. Brock and G. C. Wood, Hydroxyl Ion and Proton Mobility during Anodic Oxidation of Aluminium, Electrochim. Acta 12, 395 (1967).
N. F. Mott, Theory of the Formation of Protective Oxide Films on Metals, III Trans. Farad. Soc. 43, 429 (1947).
N. Cabrera and N. F. Mott, Rept. Progr. in Physics 12 163 (1948)
A. Charlesby, Electron Currents in Thin Oxide Layers on Aluminum, Proc. Phys. Soc. B66, 317, 533 (1953).
S. Tajima, Y. Tanabe, M. Shimura, and T. Mori, Electronmicroscopic and Optical Studies on the Electrocrystallization of Alpha-Alumina (Corundum) Films on Aluminium, Electrochim. Acta 6, 127 (1962).
M. J. Dignam, Oxide Films on Aluminum, 1. Ionic Conduction and Structure, J. Electrochem. Soc. 109, 184 (1962).
C. P. Bean, J. C. Fischer, and D. A. Vermilyea, Ionic Conductivity of Tantalum Oxide at Very High Field, Phys. Rev. 101, 551 (1956).
J. D. Dewald, Transient Effects in the Ionic Conduction of Anodic Oxide Films at High Field, J. Phys. Chem. Solids. 2, 55 (1957).
M. J. Dignam, Oxide Films on Aluminum II. Kinetics of Formation in Oxygen, J. Electrochem. Soc. 109, 192 (1962).
P. J. Ryan and M. J. Dignam, High-Field Kinetics Process in Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, Canad. J. Chem. 40, 1875 (1962).
M. J. Dignam, Field Dependence and Anomolous Temperature Dependence of Tafel Slopes for Processes Occuring at High Electrostatic Fields, Canad. J. Chem. 42, 1155 (1964).
M. J. Dignam, Conduction Properties of Valve Metal-Oxide Systems I. A New Theory, J. Electrochem. Soc. 112, 722 (1965).
M. J. Dignam, D. Goad, and M. Sole, Determination of the Field Dependence of the Tafel Slope for the Steady-State Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum, Canad. J. Chem. 43, 800 (1965).
M. J. Dignam and W. R. Fawcett, The Kinetics and Mechanism of Oxidation of Superpurity Aluminum in Dry Oxygen, I. Apparatus Description and the Growth of “Amorphous” Oxide, J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 656 (1966).
M. J. Dignam and W. R. Fawcett, The Kinetics and Mechanism of Oxidation of Superpurity Aluminum in Dry Oxygen, II. The Growth of Crystals of y-Alumina, J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 663 (1966).
K. Nagase, On the Thickness of Aluminium Film in Electrolytic Capacitor, Mem. Inst. Sci. Ind. Res., Osaka Univ. 10, 66 (1953).
K. Nagase, Mem. Inst. Sci. Ind. Res., Osaka Univ. 12, 67 (1955).
D. A. Vermilyea, The Increasing Rate of Voltage and the Relation between Residual Current and Formation Time at Formation of Aluminum Oxide Film. Ionic Conductivity of Anodic Films at High Field Strength: Transient Behavior, J. Electrochem. Soc. 104, 427 (1957).
W. J. Bernard and J. W. Cook, The Growth of Barrier Oxide Films on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 106, 643 (1959).
H. A. Johansen, G. B. Adams, and P. Van Rysselberghe, Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum, Chromium, Hafnium, Niobium, Tantalum, Vanadiam and Zirconium at Very Low Current Densities, J. Electrochem. Soc. 104, 339 (1957).
K. Videm, Behaviour of Aluminium in Barrier Layer Anodising Electrolytes, Extended Abstracts of 17th Meeting of CITCE, Tokyo (1966), pp. 30–32.
H. Fischer and F. Kurz, Über mikroskopisches Bild anodischer Oxydfilme auf Aluminium und ihr Wachstum, Korros. und Metallschutz. 18, 42 (1942).
P. Lacombe and L. Beaujard, in Etudes sur les aspects des pellicules d’oxydation anodique formés sur l’aluminium et ses alliages, Ed. comité gén. d’Org. des ind. mec., Paris (1944).
K. Huber, Pore-volume of electrolytically produced protective coatings on aluminum, J. Colloid Sci. 3, 197 (1948).
K. Huber, Studien zur Chemie und zur Struktur anodisch erzeugter Niederschläge und Deckschichten IV. Die polarisationsoptische Analyse der dispersen Struktur oxydischer Deckschichten auf Aluminium, Helv. Chim. Acta 28, 1416 (1945).
K. Huber and A. Gaugler, Über optische Untersuchung an Deckschichten auf Aluminium, Experimentia 111 (7), 1 (1947).
K. Huber, Pore volume of electrolitically produced protective coatings on aluminum, J. Colloid. Sci. 3, 197 (1948).
R. L. Burwell, Jr., P. A. Smudski, and T. P. May, Ethylene Adsorption Isotherm at-183°, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 1525 (1947).
F. P. Zalivalov, M. N. Tyukina, and N. D. Tomaschov, Effect of Electrolysis Conditions on the Formation and Growth of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, J. Phys. Chem. USSR 35, 879 (1961).
C. J. L. Booker, J. L. Wood, and A. Walsh, Electronmicrographs from Thick Oxide Layers on Aluminum, Nature 176, 222 (1955); Brit. J. App. Phys. 8, 347 (1957).
G. C. Wood, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 109–110.
H. Grubitsch, W. Geymer, and E. Burik, Eloxalschichten mit definierter Porengrösse, Aluminium 37, 569 (1961).
L. A. Cosgrove, Porosity of Anodic Oxide Coatings on Aluminum. Comparison of n-Butane and Krypton Sorption, J. Phys. Chem. 60, 385 (1956).
G. Paolini, M. Masoero, F. Sacchi, and M. Paganelli, An Investigation of Porous Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium by Comparative Adsorption, Gravimetric and Electron Optical Measurements, J. Electrochem. Soc. 112, 32 (1965).
M. S. Hunter and P. Fowle, Factors Affecting the Formation of Anodic Oxide Coatings, J. Electrochem. Soc. 101, 514 (1954).
Th. Skulikidis, S. Karalis, and P. Mentojiannis, Untersuchung der Sekundärstruktur von anodischen Deckschichten auf Aluminium durch Farbstoffaufnahmen I. Über zwei aufeinander liegende Hauptdeckschichten, Kolloid-Z. 149, 6 (1956).
Th. Skulikidis, Ch. Papathanasiu, and J. Marangosis, Untersuchung der Sekundärstruktur von anodischen Deckschichten auf Aluminium durch Farbstoffaufnahme, II. Kinetik der Färbung, Kolloid-Z. 150, 54 (1957).
Th. Skulikidis, N. Mallios, and K. Kazantzis, Kinetik der Alterung von anodischen Deckschichten auf Aluminium durch Farbstoffaufnahmen, Kolloid-Z. 159, 130 (1958).
Th. Skulikidis, G. Paraskevopoulis, and D. Argyriou, Beitrag zur Kinetik der anodischen Oxydatyon von Aluminium, Kolloid-Z. 168, 154 (1960).
Th. Skulikidis and P. Bekiaroglou, Kinetik der Alterung von anodischen Deckschichten auf Aluminium durch Farbstoffaufnahmen, II. Höhere Temperaturen, Kolloid-Z. 178, 45 (1961).
H. Akahori, Electronmicroscopic Study of Growing Mechanism of Aluminium Oxide Films, J. Electronmicroscopy 10, 175 (1961).
W. Kaden, Beitrag zu den Wachstumsvorgängen von Oxydschichten auf Aluminium, Aluminium 39, 33 (1963).
W. Kaden, Neuere Erkenntnisse und Erfahrungen über verschiedene Variationen der anodischen Oxydation des Aluminiums, Aluminium 39, 424 (1963).
T. A. Renshaw, A Study of Pore Structure of Anodized Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 108, 185 (1961).
E. F. Barkman, The Structure, Composition and Mechanism of Formation of Anodic Oxides on Aluminum, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing. (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 27–36.
R. W. Franklin, Characteristics of Barrier Coatings for Electrolytic Capacitor, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 96–107.
D. J. Stirland and R. W. Bicknell, Studies of the Structure of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 106, 481 (1959).
R. L. Burwell and T. P. May, Pittsburgh Inten. Conf. on Surface Reactions, Vol. 10, Corrosion Publishing Co., Pittsburgh (1948).
T. P. Hoar and J. Yahalom, The Initiation of Pores in Anodic Oxide Films Formed on Aluminum in Acid Solutions, J. Electrochem. Soc. 110, 614 (1963).
M. A. Barrett and A. B. Winterbottom, Film Formation on Aluminium under Various Electrochemical Conditions in Aqueous Electrolytes. First Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion (London, 1961), Butterworth, London (1963), pp. 657–661.
A. B. Winterbottom, Increased Scope of Ellipsometric Studies of Surface Film Formation, Proc. Symp. on the Ellipsometric Studies of Surface Film Formation, Proc. Symp. on the Ellipsometer and Its Use in the Measurement of Surfaces and Thin Films, NBS, Washington, D.C. (1963), pp. 97–112.
M. A. Barrett, Optical Study of the Formation and Stability of Anodic Films on Aluminum, Proc. Symp. on the Ellipsometer and Its Use in the Measurement of Surfaces and Thin Films, NBS, Washington, D.C. (1963), pp. 213–228.
M. A. Barrett, Some Observations on the Mechanism of Anodic Oxide Formation on Aluminium, Scandinavian Corrosion Congress, Helsinki (1964), p. 6.
G. H. Giles, The Theory of Dyeing Anodic Finishes, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 174–180.
V. C. P. Morfopoulos and H. C. Parreira, Elektrokinetic Studies on Oxidized Aluminium Surfaces, Corro. Sci. 7, 241 (1967).
K. Kuroda and K. Uji, On Zeta-Potential and Dyeing Affinity of Anodic Oxide Coatings on Aluminum, Chimica Metallica, Tokyo 2, 303 (1965); J. Metal Finish. Soc., Japan 18, 169 (1967).
K. Kuroda and K. Uji, Relation between pH as well as Concentration of Anodic Dyestuff Solution and Dyeability of Anodic Oxide Coating on Aluminum, J. Metal Finish. Soc., Japan 18, 481 (1967).
H. Yokota, Zeta-Potential of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminum, Denki Kagaku 35, 14 (1967).
K. R. Hart, A Study of Boehmite Formation on Aluminium Surfaces by Electron Diffraction, Trans. Farad. Soc. 50, 269 (1954).
R. C. Spooner, Water Sealing of Detached Aluminium Oxide Anodic Film, Nature 178, 1113 (1956).
M. S. Hunter, P. E. Towner, and D. L. Robinson, Hydration of Anodic Oxide Films, 46th Ann. Techn. Proc., Am. Electroplaters’ Soc. (1959), p. 6.
H. Richaud, The Influence of Sealing Water Impurities on the Quality of the Oxide Films, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 181–185.
T. P. Hoar and G. C. Wood, The Sealing of Porous Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Nottingham, 1961), Aluminium Federation, London (1962), pp. 186–220; Electrochim. Acta 7, 333 (1962).
H. Akahori and T. Fukushima, Study on the Hydration of Alumite by Electron Microscopy and Electron Micro-Diffraction, J. Electron Microscopy 13, 162 (1964).
C. A. Amore and J. F. Murphy, Sealing of Anodized Aluminum, Metal Finishing (Nov.), 50 (1965).
F. Pearlstein, Sealing Anodized Aluminum, Metal Finishing J. (Aug.), 40 (1960).
H. Neunzig and V. Röhrig, Liber die Abhängizkeit der Güte der Eloxalschicht von Ihrer Nachverdichtung, Aluminium 38, 150 (1962).
D. G. Altenpohl, Zur Frage des Auftretens von Böhmit bei der Reaktion zwischen Aluminium und kochendem oder überhitztem Wasser, Aluminium 36, 438 (1960).
D. G. Altenpohl, Use of Boehmite films for corrosion protection of aluminium, Corrosion 18, 143t (1962); Aluminium 31, 10, 62 (1955).
G. C. Wood, Sealing Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, Trans. Inst. Metal Finish. 36, winter. Part 6 (1959), ADA Reprint No. 87 (1959).
G. Bürgers, A. Classen, and J. Zernicke, Über die chemische Natur der Oxidschichten, die sich bei anodischer Polarisation auf den Metallen, Aluminium, Zirkon, Titan und Tantal bilden, Z. Physik 74, 593 (1932).
R. B. Mason, Density and Porosity of Anodic Coatings on Aluminum, Metal Finishing J. (Aug.), 55, 67 (1957).
H. N. Hill and R. B. Mason, Anodic Coatings on Aluminum, Their Brittleness, Metals and Alloys 14, 972 (1942).
H. W. L. Phillips, The Nature and Properties of the Anodic Film on Aluminium and Its Alloys, in Properties of Metallic Surfaces, The Inst. of Metals, London (1953), pp. 237–252.
N. D. Pullen, Oxide Films on Aluminium. Some Physical Properties, Met. Ind. London, 54, 327 (1939); Metallurgia 21, 57 (1939).
L. Tassara, La Lucidatura Elettrolitica dei Metalli, Antonio Cordani S.A., Milano (1945).
I. H. Khan, J. S. L. Leachi, and N. J. M. Ilkes, The Thickness and Optical Properties of Films on Anodic Aluminium Oxide, Corr. Sci. 6, 483 (1966).
T. M. Kelleher, Thermal Control Properties of Immersion and Repair Anodic Coatings, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 71–77.
E. J. Clauss, ed., Surface Effects on Space Materials, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1960).
J. E. Janssen, Normal Spectral Reflectance of Anodized Coatings on Aluminum, Magnesium, Titanium and Berylium, ASD TR 61–147, Sept. (1961).
G. Franckenstein, Gleichspannungsmessungen an elektrolytisch erzeugtem Aluminiumoxyd, Ann. Physik 26, 17 (1936).
W. Hermann, Zum Mechanismus der Oxydschichtbildung auf Aluminium-Anoden von Elektrolytkondensatoren, Siemens Wiss. Verbffent., Werkstoffsonderheft 182 (1940).
A. Miyata, Dielectric Characteristics of Aluminum Anode during Formation, Rept. Inst. Phys. Chem. Res., Tokyo 19, 369 (1940).
G. J. Tibol and R. W. Hull, Plasma Anodized Aluminum Oxide Films, J. Electrochem. Soc. 111, 1368 (1964).
D. H. Bradhurst and J. S. Llwelyn, The Mechanical Properties of Thin Anodic Films on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 1245 (1966).
D. A. Vermilyea, Stresses in Anodic Films, J. Electrochem. Soc. 110, 345 (1963).
P. C. Sheasby, Factors Affecting the Performance of Externally Exposed Anodized Aluminium, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 133–144.
R. C. Spooner, Outdoor Exposure of Anodic Coatings on Aluminum: Effect of Sealing, Finishing of Aluminum, H. G. Kissin, ed., Reinhold, New York (1963), pp. 127–162.
R. F. Stratful, Highway Corrosion Problems, Materials Protection (Sept.), 8 (1963).
R. E. Brooks, Compatibility of Aluminum with Alkaline Building Materials, Materials Protection (July), 44 (1962).
C. J. Walton and F. L. McCeary, The Compatibility of Aluminum with Alkaline Building Products, paper presented at the 13th Ann. Conf. NACE, St. Louis, 1957, Alcoa Research Lab. (1957).
F. Endtinger, Beständigkeit von Aluminium gegen alkalische Baustoffe, Aluminium Suisse 17 (April), 75 (1967).
M. J. Pryor and D. S. Keir, Galvanic Corrosion I. Current Flow and Polarization Characteristics of the Aluminum-Steel and Zinc-Steel Couples in Sodium Chloride Solution, J. Electrochem. Soc. 104, 269 (1957); II, Effect of pH and Dissolved Oxygen Concentration of the Aluminum-Steel Couple, J. Electrochem. Soc. 105, 629 (1958).
S. Tajima, T. Mori, and M. Komiya, Contact Corrosion of Bimetallic Couples of Aluminum or Anodized Aluminum and Mild Steel or Stainless Steel in Inorganic Acid Media, Boshoku Gijutsu 14, 109 (1965).
Corrosion Prevention Committee (S. Tajima, Chief), Studies on Prevention of Corrosion of Aluminum kettles, Light Metal Sheet Products Society, Tokyo (1963), p. 57.
S. Tajima, Azione dell’acqua sui bollitori di alluminio anodizato, Alluminio (3), 135 (1962).
W. C. Cochran, Test Methods for Anodized Aluminum and Their Significance, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 145–163.
Anodizing Aluminum, Japan Industrial Standard, JIS H-8601 (July, 1952 ).
J. M. Kape, The Deterioration of Anodised Aluminium Exposed to Corrosive Environments, Electroplating and Metal Finishing (Feb.), 7 (1959).
F. Sacchi, Quality Control Scheme for Anodized Aluminium, Proc. Conf. on Anodizing (Birmingham, 1967), Aluminium Federation, London (1967), pp. 167–176.
J. Stone, H. A. Tuttle, and H. N. Bogart, Ford Anodized Aluminum Corrosion Test -FACT-, Plating, July (1966), pp. 877–888.
R. V. Vanden Berg, Specifications and Nomenclature for the Commercial Use of Anodic Coatings in the U.S.A., UNIPREA ( International Symposium for the Standardization of Surface Treatments of Metal Materials ), Torino (Oct., 1961 ), p. 13.
F. Sacchi and A. Prati, Standardization of Anodic Films on Aluminium in Italy, UNIPREA, Torino (Oct., 1961 ), p. 7.
A. Kutzelnigg, A New Way of Determining the Aluminium Oxide Film Thickness of Anodized Light Alloy, UNIPREA, Torino (Oct., 1961 ), p. 2.
J. M. Kape, Testing of Anodic Coatings for Outdoor Exposure Service, UNIPREA, Torino (Oct., 1961 ), p. 7.
J. M. Kape and J. A. Whittaker, Five Year Exposure Test on Anodized Aluminium in a Severe Industrial Atmosphere, Trans. Inst. Metal. Finish. 43, 106 (1965).
V. F. Henley and F. C. Porter, Standardisation of Anodic Oxidation Coatings on Aluminium in the United Kingdom, UNIPREA, Torino (Oct., 1961 ), p. 5.
G. Darnault, Critical Analysis of Present Standardization in France and Future Programs in the Field of Anodizing Treatments, UNIPREA, Torino (Oct., 1961 ), P. 7.
CIDA/EWAA, Recommendations on Anodized Aluminium for Architectural Purposes (Centre International de Developpement de l’Aluminium, ed.), 2nd Ed., Paris (August, 1965 ).
E. Di Russo, P. Lenzi, A. Prati, and F. Sacchi, An Investigation of the Mechanism of Pitting Corrosion on Anodized Al-Si-Mg Architectural Alloys, paper presented at 28th Corrosion Week, CEBELCOR, Bruxelles (June, 1965 ).
F. C. Porter, Anodized Aluminium, Specification and Quality Control, Metal Finishing J. (Feb.), 65 (1964).
W. C. Cochran, E. T. Engelhart, and D. J. George, Improved Methods, New Tests Upgrade Anodized Auto Trim, Modern Metals 16, 82 (1960).
E. T. Engelhart and D. J. George, Evaluation of Anodic Coatings by Impedance Measurements, Materials Protection 3 (11), 24 (1964).
W. Kesternich, Prüfung metallischer und nichtmetallischer Schutzüberzüge auf Korrosionsbeständigkeit in einer künstlichen Industrieatmosphäre, Stahl und Eisen 11, 687 (1951).
A. Kutzelnigg, Vergleich zwischen dem Ergebnis der Freibewitterung in Industrieluft und der Kurzbeanspruchung in Schwefeldioxyd enthaltender Atmosphäre, Werk. u. Korr. 9, 429 (1958).
J. E. Draley and W. E. Ruther, Aqueous Corrosion of Aluminum, Corrosion 10, 12 (1957).
S. Mori and J. E. Draley, Oxide Dissolution and Its Effect on the Corrosion of 1100 Aluminum, in Water at 70°C, J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 352 (1967).
J. E. Draley, S. Mori, and R. E. Loess, The Corrosion of 1100 Aluminum in Water from 50° to 95°C, J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 353 (1967).
L. H. Kalpan, Aluminum Oxide Films from the Reaction of Aluminum and Water Vapor, Electrochem. Technology 3, 335 (1965).
K. Yamamoto, N. Baba, and S. Tajima, Mechanism of Formation of Conversion Films on Aluminium from Inhibited Alkaline Solution, Compt. Rend. 2éme Symp. Européen sur les Inhibiteurs de Corrosion (Ferrara, 1966), Università di Ferrara (1966).
S. Setoh and A. Miyata, Anodic Films of Aluminum and Their Applications, Denki Kagaku 1, 15 (1933).
R. B. Mason, Effect of Aluminum Sulfate in the Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte on Anodic Polarization, J. Electrochem. Soc. 103, 425 (1956).
J. M. Kape, The Use of Malonic Acid as an Anodizing Electrolyte, Metallurgia (Nov.), 181 (1959).
J. Pake, Control of Hot Water in Sealing Anodic Coatings, Prod Fin. 30 (1), 66, 170 (1965).
M. Karsulin, ed., Symposium sur les Buxites, Oxydes et Hydroxydes d’Aluminium, Vol. 1, II (Zagreb, 1963 ), Acad. Yougoslavie des Sciences et des Arts, Zagreb (1963).
R. B. Mason and P. E. Fowle, Anodic Behavior of Aluminum and Its Alloys in Sulfuric Acid Electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 101, 53 (1954).
J. G. Morris, Anodizing of Aluminum Alloys—Metallurgical Structure Factors, Anodized Aluminum, ASTM STP 388 (1965), pp. 21–33.
P. F. Schmidt, On the Mechanisms of Electrolytic Rectification, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 167 (1968).
D. A. Vermilyea, Anodic Films, Protons and Electrolytic Rectification, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 177 (1968).
R. H. Doremus, Ionic Transport in Amorphous Oxides, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 181 (1968).
D. M. Smith and G. A. Shim, Conduction and Stoichiometry in Heat-Treated, Anodic Oxide Films, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 186 (1968).
K. Lehovec, Impedance for Tunnel Exchange of Electrons Across the Annealed Ta/Ta205 Interface, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 192 (1968).
P. J. Boddy, Oxygen Evolution on Semiconducting TiO2, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 199 (1968).
F. Huber, On the Rectification of Anodic Oxide Films of Titanium, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 203 (1968).
J. M. Hale, The Insulator-Electrolyte Interface, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 208 (1968).
C. E. Michelson, The Current-Voltage Characteristics of Porous Anodic Oxides on Aluminum, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 213 (1968).
C. G. Dunn, Information on Anodic Oxides on Valve Metals: Oxide Growth at Constant Rate of Voltage Increase, J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 219 (1968).
A. W. Smith, The Impedance, Rectification and Electroluminescence of Anodic Oxide Films on Aluminium, Canad. J. Phys. 37, 591 (1959).
Z. Ruziewicz, Luminescence of Oxide Films Produced during Anodic Oxidation of Aluminium, Bull. Acad. Polonaise des Sciences Cl. III - 4, 537 (1956).
M. Hollo, Electronoptical Investigations on the Structure and Mechanism of Formation of Anodic Oxide Layers on Aluminium, Advance copy of the 1st. Intern. Congr. on Metallic Corrosion (London, 1961), Butterworth, London (1961), pp. 449–454.
E. Raub and N. Baba, Uber einige Eigenschaften der beim chemischen und anodischen Glänzen entstehenden Deckschichten auf Aluminium, Metalloberjläche 19, 285 (1965).
S. Tajima, N. Baba, and T. Muramaki, On Voltage-Time Transient in Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum in Aliphatic and Aromatic Acids, Extended Abstracts, Spring Meeting of the Electrochem. Soc., Japan (April, 1968), B-72 (1968).
D. R. Clarke, D. W. Hamilton, and T. R. Beck, Development of a Barrier-Layer Anodic Coating for Aluminum, Plating 54, 1342 (1967).
A. La Vecchia, R. Piontelli, F. Siniscalco, and A. Valengo, Anodizing with Sulfa-mate Bath, Proc. Symp. on Sulfamic Acid and Its Metallurgical Applications (Milan, 1966), Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia (Milan, 1966), pp. 401–410; Electrochim. Metal. 2, 85 (1967).
A. La Vecchia, G. P. Piazzesi, and F. Sinscalco, Preliminary Investigations on Al Anodic Layers from Sulfamate Bath, Proc. Symp. on Sulfamic Acid and its Metallurgical Applications (Milan, 1966), Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia, Milano (1967), pp. 411–424; Electrochim. Metal. 2, 85 (1967).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1970 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tajima, S. (1970). Anodic Oxidation of Aluminum. In: Fontana, M.G., Staehle, R.W. (eds) Advances in Corrosion Science and Technology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8252-6_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-8252-6_4
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4615-8254-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-8252-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive