Abstract
Mindfulness has been theoretically and empirically associated with psychological health. One commonly investigated mechanism underlying the association between mindfulness and psychological health is adaptive coping. Despite research demonstrating the relationship between trait mindfulness and averaged use of adaptive (and maladaptive) coping strategies, little work has examined the potential association between mindfulness and flexibility in coping. Among various conceptualizations, coping flexibility can be operationalized in terms of within-situational coping variability, referring to the extent of use of different strategies to varying degrees in a given situation, and within-strategy temporal variability, which refers to the extent of use of a particular coping strategy across different situations over time. Using a diary study approach, the present study examined the association between trait mindfulness and the two forms of coping variability. One hundred and ninety-two undergraduates from a Singaporean university were recruited and administered questionnaires and diary logs, in which they reported on use of seven different coping strategies in response to six stressors sampled over a period of 3 weeks. Consistent with hypotheses, factor analysis differentiated within-situational coping variability, within-strategy temporal variability, and averaged use of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies as distinct constructs. Higher trait mindfulness was associated with lower ruminative self-criticism and greater use of adaptive coping. Importantly, trait mindfulness predicted higher within-situational coping variability, over and above personality traits as well as the average use of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies. Overall, the study lends support to the idea that mindfulness facilitates adaptive coping in the context of daily life and provides preliminary evidence for the association between mindfulness and greater coping flexibility.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aldao, A. (2013). The future of emotion regulation research: capturing context. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459518
Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2012). The influence of context on the implementation of adaptive emotion regulation strategies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(7), 493–501 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.04.004
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
Barrett, L. F., Gross, J., Christensen, T. C., & Benvenuto, M. (2001). Knowing what you’re feeling and knowing what to do about it: mapping the relation between emotion differentiation and emotion regulation. Cognition & Emotion, 15(6), 713–724 https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000239
Bartley, C. E., & Roesch, S. C. (2011). Coping with daily stress: the role of conscientiousness. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.027
Bonanno, G. A., & Burton, C. L. (2013). Regulatory flexibility: an individual differences perspective on coping and emotion regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504116
Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., O’Neill, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004). The importance of being flexible: the ability to both enhance and suppress emotional expression predicts long-term adjustment. Psychological Science, 15(7), 482–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00705.x
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Cash, M., & Whittingham, K. (2010). What facets of mindfulness contribute to psychological well-being and depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptomatology? Mindfulness, 1, 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0023-4
Cheng, C. (2001). Assessing coping flexibility in real-life and laboratory settings: a multimethod approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 814–833. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.814
Cheng, C., Lau, H.-P. B., & Chan, M.-P. S. (2014). Coping flexibility and psychological adjustment to stressful life changes: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1582–1607. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037913
Christopher, M. S., Charoensuk, S., Gilbert, B. D., Neary, T. J., & Pearce, K. L. (2009). Mindfulness in Thailand and the United States: a case of apples versus oranges? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 590–612. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20580
Costa Jr., P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the cognitive and affective mindfulness scale-revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8
Gable, P., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2010). The blues broaden, but the nasty narrows: attentional consequences of negative affects low and high in motivational intensity. Psychological Science, 21(2), 211–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609359622
Garland, E. L., Fredrickson, B., Kring, A. M., Johnson, D. P., Meyer, P. S., & Penn, D. L. (2010). Upward spirals of positive emotions counter downward spirals of negativity: insights from the broaden-and-build theory and affective neuroscience on the treatment of emotion dysfunctions and deficits in psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 849–864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.002
Garland, E. L., Gaylord, S., & Park, J. (2009). The role of mindfulness in positive reappraisal. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 5(1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2008.10.001
Garland, E. L., Gaylord, S. A., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2011). Positive reappraisal mediates the stress-reductive effects of mindfulness: an upward spiral process. Mindfulness, 2(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0043-8
Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
Giluk, T. L. (2009). Mindfulness, big five personality, and affect: a meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(8), 805–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.026
Gunthert, K. C., Cohen, L. H., & Armeli, S. (1999). The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1087–1100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1087
Hanley, A. W., & Garland, E. L. (2014). Dispositional mindfulness co-varies with self-reported positive reappraisal. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.014
Hayes-Skelton, S., & Graham, J. (2013). Decentering as a common link among mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal, and social anxiety. Behavioural and Cognitive Therapy, 41(3), 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465812000902
Hill, C. L. M., & Updegraff, J. A. (2012). Mindfulness and its relationship to emotional regulation. Emotion, 12(1), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026355
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 865–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001
Kearney, D. J., McDermott, K., Malte, C., Martinez, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2012). Association of participation in a mindfulness program with measures of PTSD, depression and quality of life in a veteran sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20853
Keng, S., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006
Kocovski, N. L., Fleming, J. E., & Rector, N. A. (2009). Mindfulness and acceptance-based group therapy for social anxiety disorder: an open trial. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 16(3), 276–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.12.004
O’Brien, T. B., & DeLongis, A. (1996). The interactional context of problem-, emotion-, and association-focused coping: the role of the big five personality factors. Journal of Personality, 64, 775–813. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00944.x
Robins, C. J., Keng, S. L., Ekblad, A. G., & Brantley, J. G. (2012). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on emotional experience and expression: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20857
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237
Teper, R., Segal, Z., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Inside the mindful mind: how mindfulness enhances emotion regulation through improvements in executive control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(6), 449–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413495869
Tong, E. M. W., & Keng, S.-L. (2017). The relationship between mindfulness and negative emotion differentiation: a test of multiple mediation pathways. Mindfulness, 8, 933–942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0669-7.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1997). Extraversion and its positive emotional core. In R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology (pp. 767–793). San Diego: Academic Press.
Waugh, C. E., Thompson, R. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011). Flexible emotional responsiveness in trait resilience. Emotion, 11(5), 1059–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021786
Weinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). A multi-method examination of the effects of mindfulness on stress attribution, coping, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 374–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.008
Westphal, M., Seivert, N. H., & Bonanno, G. A. (2010). Expressive flexibility. Emotion, 10(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018420
Williams, N. L. (2002). The cognitive interactional model of appraisal and coping: implications for anxiety and depression (Doctoral dissertation). George Mason University, VA, United States.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Benjamin Yi Xin Wong for assisting with the data collection in this study. The authors would also like to thank all the participants for participating in this study.
Funding
This study did not receive any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SLK conceptualized and designed the study and wrote the paper. XC implemented the study, and collaborated with the design and writing of the study. EMWT analyzed the data, wrote the results, and collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by National University of Singapore’s institutional review board.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Keng, SL., Choo, X. & Tong, E.M.W. Association between Trait Mindfulness and Variability of Coping Strategies: a Diary Study. Mindfulness 9, 1423–1432 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0885-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0885-4