Abstract
Considerable gender differences have been previously noted in the prevalence, etiology, and clinical features of problem gambling. While differences in affective states between men and women in particular, may explain differential experiences in the process of gambling, the role of affect in motivations for quitting gambling and recovery has not been thoroughly explored. The aim of this study was to examine gender differences within a sample of problem gamblers motivated to quit with or without formal treatment, and further, to explore the interactions between gender, shame and guilt-proneness, and autonomous versus controlled reasons for change. Motivation for change and self-conscious emotional traits were analyzed for 207 adult problem gamblers with an interest in quitting or reducing their gambling (96.6 % not receiving treatment). Overall, gender differences were not observed in clinical and demographic characteristics. However, women exhibited greater shame [F(1,204) = 12.11, p = 0.001] and guilt proneness [F(1,204) = 14.16, p < 0.001] compared to men, whereas men scored higher on trait detachment [F(1,204) = 7.08, p = 0.008]. Controlling for demographic and clinical characteristics, general linear models revealed that autonomous motivation for change was associated with higher guilt-proneness, greater problem gambling severity, and the preparation stage of change; whereas controlled forms of motivation were significantly associated with higher shame-proneness and greater problem gambling severity. No gender effects were observed for either motivation for change. These findings suggest that the process of change can be different for shame-prone and guilt-prone problem gamblers, which may impact behavioral outcomes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afifi, T. O., Cox, B. J., Martens, P. J., Sareen, J., & Enns, M. W. (2010). Demographic and social variables associated with problem gambling among men and women in Canada. Psychiatry Research, 178(2), 395–400. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.10.003.
Averill, P. M., Diefenbach, G. J., Stanley, M. A., Breckenridge, J. K., & Lusby, B. (2002). Assessment of shame and guilt in a psychiatric sample: A comparison of two measures. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1365–1376.
Baldwin, K. M., Baldwin, J. R., & Ewald, T. (2006). The relationship among shame, guilt, and self-efficacy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 60(1), 1–21.
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 243–267.
Blanco, C., Hasin, D. S., Petry, N., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F. (2006). Sex differences in subclinical and DSM-IV pathological gambling: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychological Medicine, 36(7), 943–953. doi:10.1017/S0033291706007410.
Crisp, B. R., Thomas, S. A., Jackson, A. C., Smith, S., Borrell, J., Ho, W.-Y., et al. (2004). Not the same: A comparison of female and male client seeking treatment from problem gambling counselling services. Journal of Gambling Studies, 20(3), 283–299.
Crisp, B. R., Thomas, S. A., Jackson, A. C., Thomason, N., Smith, S., Borrell, J., et al. (2000). Sex differences in the treatment needs and outcomes of problem gamblers. Research on Social Work Practice, 10(2), 229–242.
Dawson, D. A., Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., & Zhou, Y. (2005). Effectiveness of the derived Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C) in screening for alcohol use disorders and risk drinking in the US general population. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(5), 844–854.
Dearing, R. L., Stuewig, J., & Tangney, J. P. (2005). On the importance of distinguishing shame from guilt: Relations to problematic alcohol and drug use. Addictive Behaviours, 30(7), 1392–1404. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.02.002.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Instrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Desai, R. A., & Potenza, M. N. (2008). Gender differences in the associations between past-year gambling problems and psychiatric disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43(3), 173–183. doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0283-z.
Evans, L., & Delfabbro, P. H. (2005). Motivators for change and barriers to help-seeking in Australian problem gamblers. Journal of Gambling Studies, 21(2), 133–155. doi:10.1007/s10899-005-3029-4.
Fattore, L., Melis, M., Fadda, P., & Fratta, W. (2014). Sex differences in addictive disorders. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35, 272–284.
Ferris, J., & Wynne, H. (2001). The Canadian problem gambling index: final report. Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.
Gomez-Pena, M., Penelo, E., Granero, R., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Alvarez-Moya, E., Santamaria, J. J., et al. (2011). Motivation to change and pathological gambling: Analysis of the relationship with clinical and psychopathological variables. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50(2), 196–210. doi:10.1348/014466510X511006.
Grant, J. E., & Kim, S. W. (2002). Gender differences in pathological gamblers seeking medication treatment. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43(1), 56–62. doi:10.1053/comp.2002.29857.
Herzog, T. A. (2005). When popularity outstrips the evidence: comment on West (2005). [Comment]. Addiction, 100(8), 1040–1041; author reply 1048–1050. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01171.x.
Hodgins, D. C., Currie, S. R., & el-Guebaly, N. (2001). Motivational enhancement and self-help treatments for problem gambling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 50–57. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.69.1.50.
Hodgins, D. C., & el-Guebaly, N. (2000). Natural and treatment-assisted recovery from gambling problems: A comparison of resolved and active gamblers. Addiction, 95, 777–789.
Hosmer, D. W., Lemeshow, S., & May, S. (2008). Applied survival analysis: Regression modeling of time-to-event data. Hoboken, NJ: Wiely-Interscience.
Kim, H. S., Hodgins, D. C., Bellringer, M., & Abbott, M. (2015). Gender differences among helpline callers: Prospective study of gambling and psychosocial outcomes. Journal of Gambling Studies. doi:10.1007/s10899-015-9572-8.
Koestner, R., Otis, N., Powers, T. A., Pelletier, L., & Gagnon, H. (2008). Autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and goal progress. Journal of Personality, 76(5), 1201–1230. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00519.x.
Kowatch, K. R., & Hodgins, D. C. (2015). Predictors of help-seeking for gambling disorder from the transtheoretical model perspective. International Gambling Studies. doi:10.1080/14459795.2015.1078391
Kushnir, V., Cunningham, J. A., & Hodgins, D. C. (2013). A prospective natural history study of quitting or reducing gambling with or without treatment: protocol. JMIR Res Protoc, 2(2), e51. doi:10.2196/resprot.2727.
Ladd, G. T., & Petry, N. M. (2002). Gender differences among pathological gamblers seeking treatment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(3), 302–309. doi:10.1037//1064-1297.10.3.302.
Ledgerwood, D. M., Arfken, C. L., Wiedemann, A., Bates, K. E., Holmes, D., & Jones, L. (2013). Who goes to treatment? Predictors of treatment initiation among gambling help-line callers. Am J Addict, 22(1), 33–38. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.00323.x.
Ledgerwood, D. M., Wiedemann, A. A., Moore, J., & Arfken, C. L. (2012). Clinical characteristics and treatment readiness of male and female problem gamblers calling a state gambling helpline. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(2), 162–171. doi:10.3109/16066359.2011.588815.
Lesieur, H. R. (1992). Compulsive gambling. Society, 29, 43–50.
Levesque, C. S., Williams, G. C., Elliot, D., Pickering, M. A., Bodenhamer, B., & Finley, P. J. (2007). Validating the theoretical structure of the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ) across three different health behaviors. Health Education Research, 22(5), 691–702. doi:10.1093/her/cyl148.
McCormack, A., Shorter, G. W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). An empirical study of gender differences in online gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 30(1), 71–88. doi:10.1007/s10899-012-9341-x.
Nelson, S. E., Laplante, D. A., Labrie, R. A., & Shaffer, H. J. (2006). The proxy effect: Gender and gambling problem trajectories of Iowa gambling treatment program participants. Journal of Gambling Studies, 22(2), 221–240. doi:10.1007/s10899-006-9012-x.
O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Inaba, D., Weiss, J., & Morrison, A. (1994). Shame, guilt, and depression in men and women in recovery from addiction. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 11(6), 503–510.
Petry, N. M. (2005). Stages of change in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(2), 312–322. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.2.312.
Potenza, M. N., Steinberg, M. A., McLaughlin, S. D., Wu, R., Rounsaville, B. J., & O’Malley, S. S. (2001). Gender-related differences in the characteristics of problem gamblers using a gambling helpline. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(9), 1500–1505.
Rosenthal, R. J., & Rugle, L. J. (1994). A psychodynamic approach to the treatment of pathological gambling: Part I. Achieving abstinence. Journal of Gambling Studies, 10, 21–42.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020.
Ryan, R. M., Plant, R. W., & O’Malley, S. S. (1995). Initial motivations for alcohol treatment: Relations with patient characteristics, treatment involvement, and dropout. Addictive Behaviours, 20(3), 279–297.
Slutske, W. S. (2006). Natural recovery and treatment-seeking in pathological gambling: Results of two U.S. national surveys. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 297–302.
Slutske, W. S., Blaszczynski, A., & Martin, N. G. (2009). Sex differences in the rates of recovery, treatment-seeking, and natural recovery in pathological gambling: Results from an Australian community-based twin survey. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12(5), 425–432.
Soberay, A. D., Grimsley, P., Faragher, J. M., Barbash, M., & Berger, B. (2014). Stages of change, clinical presentation, retention, and treatment outcomes in treatment-seeking outpatient problem gambling clients. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(2), 414–419. doi:10.1037/a0035455.
Stromsten, L. M., Henningsson, M., Holm, U., & Sundbom, E. (2009). Assessment of self-conscious emotions: A Swedish psychometric and structure evaluation of the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(1), 71–77. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00674.x.
Sutton, S. (2001). Back to the drawing board? A review of applications of the transtheoretical model to substance use. [Review]. Addiction, 96(1), 175–186. doi:10.1080/09652140020017049.
Suurvali, H., Hodgins, D. C., Toneatto, T., & Cunningham, J. A. (2008). Treatment-seeking among Ontario problem gamblers: Results of a population survey. Psychiatric Services, 59, 1349–1350.
Suurvali, H., Hodgins, D. C., Toneatto, T., & Cunningham, J. A. (2012). Hesitation to seek gambling-related treatment among Ontario problem gamblers. J Addict Med, 6(1), 39–49. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e3182307dbb.
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guildford Press.
Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. The Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Proneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 469–479.
Tavares, H., Zilberman, M. L., Beites, F. J., & Gentil, V. (2001). Gender differences in gambling progression. Journal of Gambling Studies, 17(2), 151–159.
Toneatto, T., & Wang, J. J. (2009). Community treatment for problem gambling: Sex differences in outcome and process. Community Mental Health Journal, 45(6), 468–475. doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9244-1.
Tschibelu, E., & Elman, I. (2011). Gender differences in psychosocial stress and in its relationship to gambling urges in individuals with pathological gambling. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 30(1), 81–87. doi:10.1080/10550887.2010.531671.
Weinstock, J., Burton, S., Rash, C. J., Moran, S., Biller, W., Krudelbach, N., et al. (2011). Predictors of engaging in problem gambling treatment: data from the West Virginia Problem Gamblers Help Network. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(2), 372–379. doi:10.1037/a0023240.
West, R. (2005). Time for a change: Putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model to rest. [Editorial]. Addiction, 100(8), 1036–1039. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01139.x.
Williams, G. C., Gagne, M., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Facilitating autonomous motivation for smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 21(1), 40–50.
Williams, G. C., Grow, V. M., Freedman, Z. R., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Motivational predictors of weight loss and weight-loss maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 115–126.
Woien, S. L., Ernst, H. A. H., Patock-Peckham, J. A., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2003). Validation of the TOSCA to measure shame and guilt. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 313–326.
Yi, S. (2012). Shame-prone gamblers and their coping with gambling loss. Journal of Gambling Issues. doi:10.4309/jgi.2012.27.7.
Yi, S., & Kanetkar, V. (2011). Coping with guilt and shame after gambling loss. Journal of Gambling Studies, 27, 317–387.
Zeldman, A., Ryan, R. M., & Fiscella, K. (2004). Motivation, autonomy support, and entity beliefs: Their role in methadone maintenance treatment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(5), 675–696.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre. The views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Center. The authors would like to thank Ms. Tamara Arenovich for her assistance with data analysis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
This research was funded by the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical standard
All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kushnir, V., Godinho, A., Hodgins, D.C. et al. Gender Differences in Self-Conscious Emotions and Motivation to Quit Gambling. J Gambl Stud 32, 969–983 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-015-9574-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-015-9574-6